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Article in Theory Into Practice • June 2002
刊載於 Theory Into Practice • 2002 年 6 月
DOI: 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

IN AN ERA OF CONSTANT DISTRACTIONS in the form of portable phones, CD players, computers, and televisions for even young children, it is hardly surprising to discover that many students have not learned to self-regulate their academic studying very well. Consider the case of Tracy, a high school student who is infatuated with MTV.
在這個充滿各種分心事物的時代，像是攜帶型電話、CD 播放器、電腦和電視，甚至連年幼的孩子也不例外，因此許多學生沒有學會如何有效自我調節學習，這並不令人驚訝。以高中生 Tracy 為例，她迷戀 MTV。

An important mid-term math exam is two weeks away, and she has begun to study while listening to popular music “to relax her.” Tracy has not set any study goals for herself-instead she simply tells herself to do as well as she can on the test. She uses no specific learning strategies for condensing and memorizing important material and does not plan out her study time, so she ends up cramming for a few hours before the test. She has only vague self-evaluative standards and cannot gauge her academic preparation accurately. Tracy attributes her learning difficulties to an inherent lack of mathematical ability and is very defensive about her poor study methods. However, she does not ask for help from others because she is afraid of “looking stupid,” or seek out supplementary materials from the library because she “already has too much to learn.” She finds studying to be anxiety-provoking, has little self-confidence in achieving success, and sees little intrinsic value in acquiring mathematical skill.
距離一場重要的期中數學考試還有兩週，她開始一邊聽流行音樂一邊讀書，「放鬆自己」。Tracy 沒有為自己設定任何學習目標——她只是告訴自己要盡力在考試中表現好。她沒有使用任何具體的學習策略來濃縮和記憶重要的內容，也沒有規劃學習時間，結果考試前幾小時才臨時抱佛腳。她只有模糊的自我評估標準，無法準確判斷自己的學習準備程度。Tracy 將學習困難歸因於天生缺乏數學能力，對自己不佳的學習方法非常防衛。然而，她不向他人尋求幫助，因為害怕「看起來很笨」，也不會從圖書館尋找補充教材，因為她覺得「已經有太多東西要學了」。她覺得學習令人焦慮，對成功缺乏自信，也看不到學習數學技能的內在價值。

Barry J. Zimmerman is Distinguished Professor at the Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York.
Barry J. Zimmerman 是紐約市立大學研究生院及大學中心的傑出教授。

Self-regulation researchers have sought to understand students like Tracy and to provide help in developing key processes that she lacks, such as goal setting, time management, learning strategies, self-evaluation, self-attributions, seeking help or information, and important self-motivational beliefs, such as self-efficacy and intrinsic task interest.
自我調節研究者一直試圖了解像 Tracy 這樣的學生，並協助她們發展所缺乏的關鍵過程，例如目標設定、時間管理、學習策略、自我評估、自我歸因、尋求幫助或資訊，以及重要的自我激勵信念，如自我效能感和內在任務興趣。

In recent years, there have been exciting discoveries regarding the nature, origins, and development of how students regulate their own learning processes (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). Although these studies have clearly revealed how self-regulatory processes lead to success in school, few teachers currently prepare students to learn on their own. In this article, I discuss students’ self-regulation as a way to compensate for their individual differences in learning, define the essential qualities of academic self-regulation, describe the structure and function of self-regulatory processes, and, finally, give an overview of methods for guiding students to learn on their own.
近年來，關於學生如何調節自己的學習過程的本質、起源與發展，有了令人振奮的發現（Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001）。儘管這些研究清楚揭示了自我調節過程如何促成學業成功，但目前仍少有教師準備學生自主學習。本文討論學生自我調節作為彌補個別學習差異的方法，定義學術自我調節的基本特質，描述自我調節過程的結構與功能，最後概述引導學生自主學習的方法。

Since the beginning of public schooling in the United States, educators have wrestled with the presence of substantial differences in individual students’ backgrounds and modes of learning. Some students grasped important concepts easily and seemed highly motivated to study, whereas
自美國公立學校開始以來，教育工作者一直在努力應對學生個別背景和學習方式存在重大差異的問題。有些學生能輕鬆掌握重要概念，且似乎有高度的學習動機，然而
others struggled to understand and retain information and often seemed disinterested. In the 19th century, learning was viewed as a formal discipline, and a student’s failure to learn was widely attributed to personal limitations in intelligence or diligence. Students were expected to overcome their individual limitations in order to profit from the curriculum of the school. Conceptions of self-regulatory development at the time were limited to acquiring desirable personal habits, such as proper diction and handwriting.
其他學生則在理解和記憶資訊方面掙扎，且經常顯得缺乏興趣。在19世紀，學習被視為一種正式的紀律，學生學習失敗普遍被歸因於個人在智力或勤奮上的限制。學生被期望克服個人限制，以從學校的課程中獲益。當時對自我調節發展的理解僅限於養成理想的個人習慣，如正確的發音和書寫。

At the dawn of the 20th century, psychology emerged as a science, and the topic of individual differences in educational functioning attracted widespread interest. Diverse reformers, such as John Dewey, E.L. Thorndike, Maria Montessori, and the progressive educators, suggested various ways to alter the curriculum to accommodate students’ individual differences, such as grouping of students homogeneously according to age or ability, introducing perceptual-motor learning tasks, and broadening course work to include training in practical skills. Later reformers matched instructional treatments to students’ aptitude or attitude scores on standardized tests (Cronbach, 1957). Despite these notable efforts, critics charged that the curriculum of American schools remained too narrow and inflexible to accommodate the psychological needs of all students. Many psychologists and educators discussed the adverse effects of a rigid curriculum on students’ self-images (ASCD Yearbook, 1962).
20 世紀初，心理學作為一門科學興起，個別差異在教育功能上的議題引起廣泛關注。多位改革者，如約翰·杜威、E.L.索恩代克、瑪麗亞·蒙特梭利以及進步教育家，提出各種方法改變課程以適應學生的個別差異，例如依年齡或能力將學生同質分組、引入感知運動學習任務，以及擴展課程內容以包含實用技能的訓練。後來的改革者則根據學生在標準化測驗中的能力或態度分數，調整教學方式（Cronbach, 1957）。儘管有這些顯著的努力，批評者仍指控美國學校的課程過於狹窄且僵化，無法滿足所有學生的心理需求。許多心理學家和教育工作者討論了僵化課程對學生自我形象的不利影響（ASCD 年鑑，1962）。

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, a new perspective on students’ individual differences began to emerge from research on metacognition and social cognition. Metacognition is defined as the awareness of and knowledge about one’s own thinking. Students’ deficiencies in learning were attributed to a lack of metacognitive awareness of personal limitations and an inability to compensate. Social cognitive researchers were interested in social influences on children’s development of self-regulation, and they studied issues such as the effects of teacher modeling and instruction on students’ goal setting and self-monitoring (Schunk, 1989; Zimmerman, 1989). Students were asked to set particular types of goals for themselves, such as completing of a certain number of math homework problems, and to self-record their effectiveness
在 1970 年代末至 1980 年代初，關於學生個別差異的新觀點開始從後設認知與社會認知的研究中浮現。後設認知被定義為對自身思考的覺察與認知。學生在學習上的不足被歸因於缺乏對個人限制的後設認知覺察以及無法補償的能力。社會認知研究者則關注社會對兒童自我調控發展的影響，他們研究了教師示範與指導對學生設定目標及自我監控的影響（Schunk, 1989；Zimmerman, 1989）。學生被要求為自己設定特定類型的目標，例如完成一定數量的數學作業，並自我記錄達成這些目標的成效
in achieving these goals. Students who set specific and proximal goals for themselves displayed superior achievement and perceptions of personal efficacy. Interestingly, simply asking students to self-record some aspect of their learning, such as the completion of assignments, often led to “spontaneous” improvements in functioning (Shapiro, 1984). These effects, termed reactivity in the scientific literature, implied that students’ metacognitive (i.e., self) awareness of particular aspects of their functioning could enhance their self-control. Of course, self-awareness is often insufficient when a learner lacks fundamental skills, but it can produce a readiness that is essential for personal change (Zimmerman, 2001).
學生為自己設定具體且近距離的目標，展現出較優秀的成就及個人效能感。有趣的是，僅僅要求學生自我記錄學習的某些方面，如作業完成情況，常常會導致功能上的「自發性」提升（Shapiro, 1984）。這些效應在科學文獻中被稱為反應性，意指學生對自身功能特定面向的後設認知（即自我覺察）能增強其自我控制力。當然，當學習者缺乏基本技能時，自我覺察往往不足，但它能產生一種對個人改變至關重要的準備狀態（Zimmerman, 2001）。

These and related results led researchers to attribute individual differences in learning to students’ lack of self-regulation. This perspective focused instead on what students needed to know about themselves in order to manage their limitations during efforts to learn, such as a dyslexic student’s knowing to use a particular strategy to read. Although teachers also need to know a student’s strengths and limitations in learning, their goal should be to empower their students to become self-aware of these differences. If a student fails to understand some aspect of a lesson in class, he or she must possess the self-awareness and strategic knowledge to take corrective action. Even if it were possible for teachers to accommodate every student’s limitation at any point during the school day, their assistance could undermine the most important aspect of this learning-a student’s development of a capability to self-regulate.
這些及相關的研究結果使研究者將學習上的個別差異歸因於學生缺乏自我調節。這種觀點轉而關注學生需要了解自身哪些方面，以便在學習過程中管理自身的限制，例如一位閱讀障礙學生知道如何使用特定策略來閱讀。雖然教師也需要了解學生在學習上的優勢與限制，但他們的目標應該是賦予學生自我覺察這些差異的能力。如果學生未能理解課堂上的某個知識點，他或她必須具備自我覺察和策略性知識以採取修正行動。即使教師能在學校任何時段配合每位學生的限制，他們的幫助也可能會削弱學習中最重要的部分——學生發展自我調節能力。

Self-regulation is not a mental ability or an academic performance skill; rather it is the selfdirective process by which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills. Learning is viewed as an activity that students do for themselves in a proactive way rather than as a covert event that happens to them in reaction to teaching. Self-regulation refers to self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are oriented to attaining goals (Zimmerman, 2000). These learners are proactive in their efforts to learn because they are
自我調節不是一種心理能力或學業表現技能；它是學習者將心理能力轉化為學業技能的自我引導過程。學習被視為學生主動為自己進行的活動，而非被動地對教學產生反應的隱性事件。自我調節指的是為達成目標而自發產生的想法、情緒與行為（Zimmerman, 2000）。這些學習者因為
aware of their strengths and limitations and because they are guided by personally set goals and task-related strategies, such as using an arithmetic addition strategy to check the accuracy of solutions to subtraction problems. These learners monitor their behavior in terms of their goals and self-reflect on their increasing effectiveness. This enhances their self-satisfaction and motivation to continue to improve their methods of learning. Because of their superior motivation and adaptive learning methods, self-regulated students are not only more likely to succeed academically but to view their futures optimistically.
了解自身的優勢與限制，且受到個人設定的目標和與任務相關的策略所引導，例如使用加法策略檢查減法問題的解答是否正確，因此在學習上採取主動行動。這些學習者會根據目標監控自己的行為，並對自己日益增強的效能進行自我反思。這增強了他們的自我滿足感與持續改進學習方法的動機。由於他們擁有較強的動機和適應性學習方法，自我調節的學生不僅更有可能在學業上成功，也更樂觀看待自己的未來。

Self-regulation is important because a major function of education is the development of lifelong learning skills. After graduation from high school or college, young adults must learn many important skills informally. For example, in business settings, they are often expected to learn a new position, such as selling a product, by observing proficient others and by practicing on their own. Those who develop high levels of skill position themselves for bonuses, early promotion, or more attractive jobs. In self-employment settings, both young and old must constantly self-refine their skills in order to survive. Their capability to selfregulate is especially challenged when they undertake long-term creative projects, such as works of art, literary texts, or inventions. In recreational settings, learners spend much personally regulated time learning diverse skills for self-entertainment, ranging from hobbies to sports.
自我調節之所以重要，是因為教育的一項主要功能在於培養終身學習的能力。高中或大學畢業後，年輕人必須非正式地學習許多重要技能。例如，在商業環境中，他們經常被期望透過觀察熟練者並自行練習來學習新職位，例如銷售產品。那些發展出高水準技能的人，往往能獲得獎金、提前升遷或更具吸引力的工作。在自營職業環境中，無論年輕或年長者，都必須不斷自我精進技能以求生存。當他們從事長期創意專案，如藝術作品、文學文本或發明時，自我調節的能力尤其受到挑戰。在休閒環境中，學習者花費大量自我調節的時間學習各種技能以自我娛樂，範圍涵蓋從嗜好到運動。

Although the relationship of self-reliance to success in life has been widely recognized, most students struggle to attain self-discipline in their methods of study today as they did a century ago. What does contemporary research tell us about this desirable but elusive personal quality? First, self-regulation of learning involves more than detailed knowledge of a skill; it involves the self-awareness, self-motivation, and behavioral skill to implement that knowledge appropriately. For example, there is evidence (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2000) that experts differ from non-experts in their application of knowledge at crucial times during learning performances, such as correcting specific deficiencies in technique.
儘管自立與人生成功的關係已被廣泛認可，但大多數學生在學習方法上的自律力，今日仍與一百年前一樣掙扎。當代研究告訴我們關於這種理想但難以捉摸的個人特質些什麼？首先，學習的自我調節不僅涉及對技能的詳細認知；還包括自我覺察、自我激勵以及適當運用該知識的行為技巧。例如，有證據（Cleary & Zimmerman, 2000）顯示，專家與非專家在學習表現的關鍵時刻，諸如修正技術上的特定缺陷時，對知識的應用有所不同。

Second, contemporary research tells us that self-regulation of learning is not a single personal
其次，當代研究告訴我們，學習的自我調節並非單一的個人
trait that individual students either possess or lack. Instead, it involves the selective use of specific processes that must be personally adapted to each learning task. The component skills include: (a) setting specific proximal goals for oneself, (b) adopting powerful strategies for attaining the goals, © monitoring one’s performance selectively for signs of progress, (d) restructuring one’s physical and social context to make it compatible with one’s goals, (e) managing one’s time use efficiently, (f) self-evaluating one’s methods, (g) attributing causation to results, and (h) adapting future methods. A students’ level of learning has been found to vary based on the presence or absence of these key self-regulatory processes (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; 1998).
這並非是個別學生天生具備或缺乏的特質。相反地，它涉及對特定過程的選擇性使用，必須針對每個學習任務個別調整。組成技能包括：（a）為自己設定具體的近期目標，（b）採用有效策略達成目標，（c）針對進展跡象有選擇地監控自己的表現，（d）重組自己的物理與社會環境，使之與目標相符，（e）有效管理時間使用，（f）自我評估方法，（g）歸因於結果的原因，以及（h）調整未來的方法。研究發現，學生的學習程度會因這些關鍵自我調節過程的有無而異（Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; 1998）。

Third, contemporary research reveals that the self-motivated quality of self-regulated learners depends on several underlying beliefs, including perceived efficacy and intrinsic interest. Historically, educators have focused on social encouragement and extrinsic “bells and whistles” to try to elevate students’ level of motivation. Unfortunately, self-directed studying or practicing was often derided as inherently boring, repetitive, and mind numbing with catchy phrases such as “Drill and kill.” However, interviews with experts reveal a very different picture of these experiences (Ericsson & Charness, 1994). Experts spend approximately four hours each day in study and practice and find these activities highly motivating. They vary their methods of study and practice in order to discover new strategies for self-improvement. With such diverse skills as chess, sports, and music, the quantity of an individual’s studying and practicing is a strong predictor of his or her level of expertise. There is also evidence that the quality of practicing and studying episodes is highly predictive of a learner’s level of skill (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997; 1999).
第三，當代研究揭示，自我調節學習者的自我動機特質依賴於幾項基礎信念，包括感知效能與內在興趣。歷來教育者多著眼於社會鼓勵與外在的「花招」來提升學生的動機水準。不幸的是，自主學習或練習常被嘲諷為本質上乏味、重複且令人麻木，並流傳著「操練致死」等耳熟能詳的說法。然而，專家訪談卻呈現出截然不同的經驗（Ericsson & Charness, 1994）。專家每天約花四小時於學習與練習，並覺得這些活動極具激勵性。他們會變換學習與練習方法，以探索自我提升的新策略。無論是象棋、運動或音樂等多元技能，個人學習與練習的量是其專業程度的重要預測因子。也有證據顯示，練習與學習的品質高度預測學習者的技能水準（Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997; 1999）。

However, few beginners in a new discipline immediately derive powerful self-motivational benefits, and they may easily lose interest if they are not socially encouraged and guided, as most music teachers will readily attest (McPherson & Zimmerman, in press). Fortunately, the motivation of novices can be greatly enhanced when and if they use high-quality self-regulatory processes, such as close self-monitoring. Students who have the capabilities
然而，多數新手在新領域中不會立即獲得強大的自我激勵效益，若未受到社會鼓勵與指導，他們很容易失去興趣，這點多數音樂教師都能證實（McPherson & Zimmerman, 即將出版）。幸運的是，當新手使用高品質的自我調節過程，例如密切的自我監控時，其動機可大幅提升。具備這些能力的學生
to detect subtle progress in learning will increase their levels of self-satisfaction and their beliefs in their personal efficacy to perform at a high level of skill (Schunk, 1983). Clearly, their motivation does not stem from the task itself, but rather from their use of self-regulatory processes, such as selfmonitoring, and the effects of these processes on their self-beliefs.
能夠察覺學習中的細微進步，將提升他們的自我滿足感和對自身高水準技能表現效能的信念（Schunk, 1983）。顯然，他們的動機並非來自任務本身，而是來自他們運用自我調節過程，如自我監控，以及這些過程對其自我信念的影響。

This brings us to the essential question of how does a student’s use of specific learning processes, level of self-awareness, and motivational beliefs combine to produce self-regulated learners? Social
這帶我們進入一個核心問題：學生如何透過特定的學習過程運用、自我覺察程度及動機信念的結合，成為自我調節的學習者？社會
learning psychologists view the structure of selfregulatory processes in terms of three cyclical phases. The forethought phase refers to processes and beliefs that occur before efforts to learn; the performance phase refers to processes that occur during behavioral implementation, and self-reflection refers to processes that occur after each learning effort. The processes that have been studied in each phase to date are shown in Figure 1, and the function of each process will be described next (Zimmerman, 2000).
學習心理學家將自我調節過程的結構視為三個循環階段。預備階段指的是學習努力開始前發生的過程與信念；執行階段指的是行為實施期間發生的過程；自我反思階段則是指每次學習努力後發生的過程。目前在各階段所研究的過程如圖 1 所示，接下來將說明各過程的功能（Zimmerman, 2000）。

There are two major classes of forethought phase processes: task analysis and self-motivation.
前置思考階段的過程主要分為兩大類：任務分析與自我激勵。

Figure 1. Phases and Subprocesses of Self-Regulation. From B.J. Zimmerman and M. Campillo (in press), “Motivating Self-Regulated Problem Solvers.” In J.E. Davidson and Robert Sternberg (Eds.), The Nature of Problem Solving. New York: Cambridge University Press. Adapted with permission.
圖 1. 自我調節的階段與子過程。摘自 B.J. Zimmerman 與 M. Campillo（即將出版），“激勵自我調節的問題解決者。”收錄於 J.E. Davidson 與 Robert Sternberg（編），《問題解決的本質》。紐約：劍橋大學出版社。經授權改編。

Task analysis involves goal setting and strategic planning. There is considerable evidence of increased academic success by learners who set specific proximal goals for themselves, such as memorizing a word list for a spelling test, and by learners who plan to use spelling strategies, such as segmenting words into syllables.
任務分析包括目標設定與策略規劃。有大量證據顯示，為自己設定具體近距離目標的學習者（例如為拼字測驗背誦單字表），以及計劃使用拼字策略（如將單字分割成音節）的學習者，學業成就均有所提升。

Self-motivation stems from students’ beliefs about learning, such as self-efficacy beliefs about having the personal capability to learn and outcome expectations about personal consequences of learning (Bandura, 1997). For example, students who feel self-efficacious about learning to divide fractions and expect to use this knowledge to pass a college entrance exam are more motivated to learn in a self-regulated fashion. Intrinsic interest refers to the students’ valuing of the task skill for its own merits, and learning goal orientation refers to valuing the process of learning for its own merits. Students who find the subject matter of history, for example, interesting and enjoy increasing their mastery of it are more motivated to learn in a selfregulated fashion.
自我動機源自學生對學習的信念，例如關於具備個人學習能力的自我效能信念，以及對學習結果的個人後果期望（Bandura, 1997）。舉例來說，對於學習分數除法感到有自我效能，並期望利用這項知識通過大學入學考試的學生，更有動機以自我調節的方式學習。內在興趣指學生對任務技能本身的重視，而學習目標導向則指重視學習過程本身。舉例來說，對歷史科目感到有趣並享受提升掌握度的學生，更有動機以自我調節的方式學習。

Performance phase processes fall into two major classes: self-control and self-observation. Self-control refers to the deployment of specific methods or strategies that were selected during the forethought phase. Among the key types of selfcontrol methods that have been studied to date are the use of imagery, self-instruction, attention focusing, and task strategies. For example, in learning the Spanish word pan for “bread,” an English-speaking girl could form an image of a bread pan or selfinstruct using the phrase “bread pan.” She could also locate her place of study away from distracting noises so she could control her attention better. For a task-strategy, she could group the Spanish word pan with associated words for foods.
執行階段的過程分為兩大類：自我控制與自我觀察。自我控制是指運用在前瞻階段所選擇的特定方法或策略。迄今為止被研究的主要自我控制方法包括運用意象、自我指導、注意力集中以及任務策略。舉例來說，學習西班牙語單字 pan（意為「麵包」）時，一位以英語為母語的女孩可以想像一個烤麵包的烤盤，或使用「bread pan」這句話進行自我指導。她也可以選擇遠離干擾噪音的地方學習，以更好地控制注意力。至於任務策略，她可以將西班牙語單字 pan 與相關的食物詞彙分組。

Self-observation refers to self-recording personal events or self-experimentation to find out the cause of these events. For example, students are often asked to self-record their time use to make them aware of how much time they spend studying. A boy may notice that when he studied alone, he finished his homework more quickly than when studying with a friend. To test this hypothesis,
自我觀察是指自我記錄個人事件或透過自我實驗來找出這些事件的原因。舉例來說，學生常被要求記錄自己的時間使用，以讓他們意識到自己花多少時間在學習上。一位男孩可能發現自己獨自學習時，比與朋友一起學習時更快完成作業。為了驗證這個假設，
the boy could conduct a self-experiment in which he studied parallel lessons alone and in the presence of his friend to see whether his friend was an asset or a liability. Self-monitoring, a covert form of self-observation, refers to one’s cognitive tracking of personal functioning, such as the frequency of failing to capitalize words when writing an essay.
這個男孩可以進行一個自我實驗，他分別在獨自學習和平時有朋友在場的情況下，學習平行課程，以觀察朋友是助力還是阻力。自我監控是一種隱蔽形式的自我觀察，指的是個體對自身功能的認知追蹤，例如寫作文時未能將單字首字母大寫的頻率。

There are two major classes of self-reflection phase processes: self-judgment and self-reaction. One form of self-judgment, self-evaluation, refers to comparisons of self-observed performances against some standard, such as one’s prior performance, another person’s performance, or an absolute standard of performance. Another form of self-judgment involves causal attribution, which refers to beliefs about the cause of one’s errors or successes, such as a score on a mathematics test. Attributing a poor score to limitations in fixed ability can be very damaging motivationally because it implies that efforts to improve on a future test will not be effective. In contrast, attributing a poor math score to controllable processes, such as the use of the wrong solution strategy, will sustain motivation because it implies that a different strategy may lead to success.
自我反思階段的過程主要分為兩大類：自我評判和自我反應。自我評判的一種形式是自我評估，指的是將自我觀察到的表現與某種標準進行比較，例如自己的先前表現、他人的表現或絕對的表現標準。另一種自我評判形式是因果歸因，指的是對自己錯誤或成功原因的信念，例如數學考試的分數。將低分歸因於固定能力的限制，對動機會非常有害，因為這意味著未來考試中努力改進將無效。相反地，將數學低分歸因於可控的過程，例如使用錯誤的解題策略，則能維持動機，因為這暗示改變策略可能會導致成功。

One form of self-reaction involves feelings of self-satisfaction and positive affect regarding one’s performance. Increases in self-satisfaction enhance motivation, whereas decreases in self-satisfaction undermine further efforts to learn (Schunk, 2001). Self-reactions also take the form of adaptive/defensive responses. Defensive reactions refer to efforts to protect one’s self-image by withdrawing or avoiding opportunities to learn and perform, such as dropping a course or being absent for a test. In contrast, adaptive reactions refer to adjustments designed to increase the effectiveness of one’s method of learning, such as discarding or modifying an ineffective learning strategy.
自我反應的一種形式涉及對自己表現的自我滿意感和正面情緒。自我滿意感的提升會增強動機，而自我滿意感的降低則會削弱進一步學習的努力（Schunk, 2001）。自我反應還包括適應性／防禦性反應。防禦性反應指的是為了保護自我形象而採取的撤退或避免學習和表現機會的行為，例如退選課程或缺席考試。相對地，適應性反應指的是為了提高學習方法效能而進行的調整，例如放棄或修改無效的學習策略。

This view of self-regulation is cyclical in that self-reflections from prior efforts to learn affect subsequent forethought processes (e.g., self-dissatisfaction will lead to lower levels of self-efficacy and diminished effort during subsequent learning) (Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). In support of this cyclical view of self-regulation, high correlations were
這種自我調節的觀點是循環性的，因為先前學習努力的自我反思會影響後續的前瞻性思考過程（例如，自我不滿足會導致較低的自我效能感以及在後續學習中的努力減少）（Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994）。支持這種自我調節循環觀點的證據是
found among learners’ use of forethought, performance, and self-reflection phase processes (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1999). For example, students who set specific proximal goals are more likely to selfobserve their performance in theses areas, more likely to achieve in the target area, and will display higher levels of self-efficacy than students who do not set goals (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Other studies have revealed that experts display significantly higher levels of self-regulatory processes during practice efforts than novices (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2000).
學習者在使用前瞻、執行和自我反思階段過程中呈現高度相關（Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1999）。例如，設定具體近端目標的學生較可能自我觀察這些領域的表現，更有可能在目標領域中取得成就，並且比未設定目標的學生展現較高的自我效能感（Bandura & Schunk, 1981）。其他研究顯示，專家在練習過程中展現的自我調節過程顯著高於新手（Cleary & Zimmerman, 2000）。

The self-regulation profile of novices is very distinctive from that of experts. Novices fail to engage in high-quality forethought and instead attempt to self-regulate their learning reactively. That is, they fail to set specific goals or to self-monitor systematically, and as a result, they tend to rely on comparisons with the performance of others to judge their learning effectiveness. Because typically other learners are also progressing, their performance represents a constantly increasing criterion of success that is very difficult to surpass. Furthermore, learners who make comparative self-evaluations are prompted to attribute causation to ability deficiencies (which are also normative in nature), and this will produce lower personal satisfaction and prompt defensive reactions. In contrast, the self-regulation profile of experts reveals they display high levels of selfmotivation and set hierarchical goals for themselves with process goals leading to outcome goals in succession, such as dividing a formal essay into an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Experts plan learning efforts using powerful strategies and selfobserve their effects, such as a visual organizer for filling in key information (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). They self-evaluate their performance against their personal goals rather than other learners’ performance, and they make strategy (or method) attributions instead of ability attributions. This leads to greater personal satisfaction with their learning progress and further efforts to improve their performance. Together these self-reactions enhance various self-motivational beliefs of experts, such as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, learning goal orientation, and intrinsic interest.
新手的自我調節特徵與專家有明顯不同。新手無法進行高品質的前瞻性思考，而是試圖以反應性的方式自我調節學習。也就是說，他們未能設定具體目標或系統性地自我監控，因此往往依賴與他人表現的比較來判斷自己的學習成效。由於其他學習者通常也在進步，他們的表現代表了一個持續提高的成功標準，這很難超越。此外，進行比較性自我評估的學習者容易將成因歸咎於能力不足（這也是一種常態性現象），這會降低個人滿意度並引發防禦性反應。相反地，專家的自我調節特徵顯示他們展現高度的自我動機，並為自己設定階層性的目標，過程目標依序引向結果目標，例如將一篇正式論文分為引言、正文與結論。專家運用有效策略規劃學習，並自我觀察其效果，例如使用視覺組織工具來填寫關鍵資訊（Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997）。他們以個人目標作為評估標準，而非他人表現，且將成因歸因於策略（或方法）而非能力。這使他們對學習進展感到更滿意，並促使他們持續努力提升表現。這些自我反應共同強化了專家的各種自我激勵信念，如自我效能、結果期望、學習目標取向與內在興趣。

Knowing the differences in the structure and function of self-regulatory processes between experts and novices has enabled researchers to formulate
了解專家與新手在自我調節過程的結構與功能上的差異，使研究者能夠制定
intervention programs in schools for children who display lower levels of self-regulatory development (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998).
針對自我調節發展程度較低兒童的學校介入方案（Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998）。

Research on the quality and quantity of students’ use of self-regulatory processes has revealed high correlations with academic achievement track placement as well as with performance on standardized test scores (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986). There is also evidence that students’ use of self-regulatory processes is distinctive from but correlated with general measures of ability, such as verbal ability (Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). Although many self-regulatory processes, such as goal setting and self-monitoring, are generally covert, teachers are aware of many overt manifestations of these processes, such as students’ self-awareness of the quality of their work and preparedness in class (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1988). Recent research shows that self-regulatory processes are teachable and can lead to increases in students’ motivation and achievement (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998).
關於學生使用自我調節過程的質量與數量的研究顯示，這些過程與學業成就分班以及標準化考試成績表現有高度相關（Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986）。也有證據顯示，學生使用自我調節過程與一般能力測量（如語文能力）不同，但兩者之間存在相關性（Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994）。雖然許多自我調節過程，如目標設定和自我監控，通常是隱性的，但教師能察覺這些過程的許多外顯表現，例如學生對自己作業品質的自我覺察以及課堂準備情況（Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1988）。近期研究顯示，自我調節過程是可以教導的，且能提升學生的動機與成就（Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998）。

Although research findings strongly support the importance of students’ use of self-regulatory processes, few teachers effectively prepare students to learn on their own (Zimmerman, Bonner, & Kovach, 1996). Students are seldom given choices regarding academic tasks to pursue, methods for carrying out complex assignments, or study partners. Few teachers encourage students to establish specific goals for their academic work or teach explicit study strategies. Also, students are rarely asked to self-evaluate their work or estimate their competence on new tasks. Teachers seldom assess students’ beliefs about learning, such as self-efficacy perceptions or causal attributions, in order to identify cognitive or motivational difficulties before they become problematic.
儘管研究結果強烈支持學生使用自我調節過程的重要性，但很少有教師能有效地準備學生自主學習（Zimmerman, Bonner, & Kovach, 1996）。學生很少被賦予選擇學術任務、執行複雜作業的方法或學習夥伴的權利。很少有教師鼓勵學生為學業工作設定具體目標或教導明確的學習策略。此外，學生也很少被要求自我評估作業或估計自己在新任務上的能力。教師也很少評估學生對學習的信念，如自我效能感知或因果歸因，以便在問題出現前辨識認知或動機上的困難。

Contrary to a commonly held belief, self-regulated learning is not asocial in nature and origin. Each self-regulatory process or belief, such as goal setting, strategy use, and self-evaluation, can be learned from instruction and modeling by parents, teachers, coaches, and peers. In fact, self-regulated students seek out help from others to improve
與普遍認知相反，自我調節學習並非本質上或起源上是非社會性的。每一項自我調節過程或信念，如目標設定、策略運用及自我評估，都可以透過父母、教師、教練及同儕的指導與示範來學習。事實上，自我調節的學生會主動尋求他人的協助以提升自己
their learning. What defines them as “self-regulated” is not their reliance on socially isolated methods of learning, but rather their personal initiative, perseverance, and adoptive skill. Self-regulated students focus on how they activate, alter, and sustain specific learning practices in social as well as solitary contexts. In an era when these essential qualities for lifelong learning are distressingly absent in many students, teaching self-regulated learning processes is especially relevant.
他們的學習。使他們被定義為「自我調節」的，不是他們依賴社會孤立的學習方法，而是他們的個人主動性、毅力與適應能力。自我調節的學生專注於如何在社會及獨處的情境中啟動、改變並維持特定的學習行為。在許多學生中這些終身學習的關鍵特質令人憂心地缺失的時代，教授自我調節的學習過程尤其重要。

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Zimmerman, B.J., & Campillo, M.（即將出版）。激勵自我調節的問題解決者。收錄於 J.E. Davidson 與 R. Sternberg（編），《問題解決的本質》。紐約：劍橋大學出版社。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1997). Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting from process to outcome goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 29-36.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1997)。自我調節的發展階段：從過程目標轉向結果目標。《教育心理學期刊》，89，29-36。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 1-10.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999)。習得寫作修訂技巧：從過程轉向結果的自我調節目標。《教育心理學期刊》，91，1-10。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing students’ use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 614-628.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986)。發展一套結構化訪談以評估學生使用自我調節學習策略的情形。《美國教育研究期刊》，23，614-628。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1988). Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 284-290.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1988)。學生自我調節學習策略模型的建構效度驗證。《教育心理學期刊》，80，284-290。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22, 73-101.
Zimmerman, B.J., & Risemberg, R. (1997)。成為一位自我調節的寫作者：社會認知觀點。《當代教育心理學》，22，73-101。
Zimmerman, B.J., & Schunk, D.H. (Eds.). (2001). Selfregulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Zimmerman, B.J. 與 Schunk, D.H.（編）。(2001)。自我調控學習與學業成就：理論觀點（第二版）。新澤西州馬瓦：Erlbaum。