并准确记录他们的观察结果，通常构成综合行为评估的重要组成部分。
并准确记录他们的观察结果，通常构成全面行为评估的重要组成部分。

如前所述，最初的转诊通常缺乏足够的细节来制定全面的行为治疗计划，但它们可以提供有价值的起点。与推荐人、家长、老师和其他与孩子日常生活密切相关的个人进行讨论可以深入了解问题行为。要求看护人填写有关孩子行为的详细问卷可以进一步增强所提供的信息。这个过程不仅有助于更深入地了解孩子的行为，还鼓励线人采取更多的行为视角，类似于从不同的角度看待事物或学习一门新语言。
如前所述，初次转介通常缺乏足够的细节来制定全面的行为治疗计划，但它们可以提供有价值的起点。与转介者、家长、教师及其他与孩子日常生活密切相关的人员进行讨论，可以深入了解问题行为的成因。要求照顾者填写关于孩子行为的详细问卷，可以进一步丰富信息。这一过程不仅有助于更深入地理解孩子的行为，还能促使信息提供者采用更行为导向的视角，类似于从不同角度观察问题或学习新语言。

这种方法非常有助于弥合更具体和详细的数据收集观察方法与过于主观或片面而没有多大用处的转介理由之间的差距。
这种方法在弥合更具体、更详细的数据收集观察方法与过于主观或片面而难以发挥作用的转介依据之间的差距方面，发挥了重要作用。

第一步涉及明确定义问题。这需要将其分解为具体的作。简单地说 Harry 好斗或自尊心低下缺乏明确性和特异性。为什么哈利被认为是好斗的？也许是因为他向他的老师扔东西。在这种情况下，重点是 Harry 的投掷行为。以客观的方式精确概述要修改的行为至关重要。例如，说 Harry 扰乱课堂提供的洞察力有限。然而，指定哈利在她转身时用书本打他面前的学生的头，可以提供更详细的信息。
第一步是明确界定问题。这需要将问题分解为具体的行为。仅仅指出哈里具有攻击性或自尊心低，缺乏清晰度和具体性。为什么认为哈里具有攻击性？可能是因为他会向老师扔东西。在这种情况下，重点在于哈里的扔东西行为。以客观方式精准界定需要修改的行为至关重要。例如，仅指出“哈里扰乱课堂”无法提供足够信息。而具体描述“每当前面学生转身时，哈里就用书本击打其头部”则提供了更为详尽的细节。

童年时期的攻击性是转诊的主要原因之一。然而，这实际上意味着什么，激进的推荐是如何产生的呢？首先，Harry 通常会做一些权威人物认为令人反感的事情。或者，也许负责人不喜欢 Sophia 不采取行动。人们可以将其称为被动攻击。
儿童期的攻击性是导致转介的主要原因之一。那么，这究竟意味着什么，攻击性转介又是如何产生的呢？首先，哈里通常会做一些权威人物认为不可接受的事情。或者，当索菲亚没有采取行动时，负责人可能不喜欢这种情况。这可以被称为被动攻击。

例如，假设哈利在课堂上经常画武器滴血和肢解尸体的图片。或者，索菲亚警告一位同学，她会在课间休息时和别人一起玩而“报复”。另一名学生坐在椅子上，当其他人靠近时，他会发出咆哮的声音。许多成年人可能会将这些事件解释为攻击性，而不是简单地重述特定的可观察行为，将孩子贴上攻击性的标签。他们可能认为通过将观察结果提升到某种程度的解释并为行为分配假定的原因，他们提供了有价值的见解。然而，直接从同龄人那里询问 Harry 的行为通常更可靠，因为孩子们通常对此类事情更加坦率。
例如，假设哈利在课堂上经常画出滴血的武器和残缺不全的尸体。或者，索菲亚警告一位同学，说她会“报复”在课间休息时和别人玩耍的人。另一名学生坐在椅子上，当别人走近时会发出低吼声。与其仅仅重复这些令人担忧的具体可观察行为，许多成年人可能会将这些现象解读为攻击性行为，并给孩子贴上“攻击性”的标签。他们可能认为，通过将观察结果提升到解读层面并为行为赋予假设原因，自己提供了有价值的见解。然而，通常更可靠的做法是直接向哈利的同伴询问他的行为，因为孩子们在涉及此类问题时通常更为坦率。

现在，让我们想象一下心理学家林奇博士审查转诊并读到哈利具有攻击性。然而，林奇博士并没有亲眼目睹哈利的行为，也缺乏额外的背景来解释这些信息。根据她过去的经历和对“攻击性”一词
现在，让我们想象一下心理学家林奇博士在审阅转介文件时，看到哈里被描述为具有攻击性。然而，林奇博士并未亲眼目睹哈里的行为，也缺乏更多背景信息来解读这一描述。基于她过往的经验和对该术语的理解，
的看法，林奇博士可能会错误地认为哈利的行为与其他身体攻击性学生相似。通过从客观观察过渡到主观标签，然后回到对学生行为的另一个假定的客观观点，事情的真相变得扭曲，导致潜在的误解。最初将观测值保持在客观水平会更简单。一旦主观的假设标签出现，事情就变得混乱起来。
“具有攻击性”，林奇博士可能会错误地认为哈里与其他具有身体攻击性的学生行为相似。从客观观察转向主观标签，再回到对学生行为的另一种假设客观视角，事实的真相因此被扭曲，可能导致误解。最初保持观察在客观层面会更简单。一旦主观假设性标签介入，事情就变得复杂了。

想象一下，将英国文学的杰作，例如莎士比亚的十四行诗之一，翻译成法语等外语。然后，让不熟悉原诗的人将其翻译回英文。这个二手译本与原作有多相似？它能有效地传达莎士比亚的意图吗？结果可能会与原来有很大偏差，莎士比亚可能会对结果感到沮丧。
想象一下，将英语文学的经典之作，比如莎士比亚的一首十四行诗，翻译成法语。然后，让一个对原诗一无所知的人将它翻译回英语。这种二手翻译与原著的相似程度会有多高？它能否有效传达莎士比亚的原意？很可能，结果会与原著有显著差异，莎士比亚可能会对这样的结果感到失望。

同样，使用“自我形象差”或“自卑”等模糊的描述作为推荐原因并不能提供太多的明确性。Harry 表现出哪些具体行为来证明自我形象不佳的标签是合理的？他是否经常批评自己，还是允许别人毫无抵抗地利用他？这些是我们需要了解和解决的细节，以便促进有意义的变革。
同样地，使用“自我形象差”或“自尊心低”等模糊描述作为转介理由，并不能提供明确的依据。哈里具体表现出哪些行为才符合“自我形象差”的标签？他是否经常自我批评，或是任由他人占自己便宜而不反抗？这些细节正是我们需要理解并解决的问题，以便推动有意义的改变。

许多行为治疗计划依靠行为目标来建立指导干预措施和评估其有效性的目标。一些专家将行为目标定义为基于可观察、可测量行为的学习规范。简单来说，行为目标概述了我们希望哈利表现出的行为。我们希望哈利完成哪些具体的行为改变？精心设计的行为目标通常包括五个关键组成部分：
许多行为治疗计划依赖于行为目标来确立指导干预措施并评估其有效性的目标。一些专家将行为目标定义为基于可观察、可测量行为的学习规范。通俗来说，行为目标明确了我们希望哈里展现出的具体行为。我们希望哈里实现哪些具体的行为改变？经过精心设计的行為目标通常包含五个关键要素：

例如，一个示例目标可能是：“哈利将准确解决四年级教科书第 6 章中十分之九的数学问题。

第二步涉及确定基线，这需要了解孩子在正常情况下参与目标行为的频率。

通常，这是通过让观察者在教室里呆上一周左右的时间，监控哈利与环境的互动并统计相关行为的实例来实现的。或者，教师、助手甚至班上的同学可以协助收集基线数据。建立基线的目的是为监控目标行为提供参考点。一旦建立了基线，就可以通过观察目标行为频率的变化来评估干预措施是否产生积极、消极或中性影响变得更加容易。正如第 2 章所讨论的，对行为频率和速率的强调至关重要。获得的数值数据称为数据，为决策提供客观证据，而不是仅仅依赖主观意见。在开始干预之前收集一两周的基线数据是常见的做法。这允许在未处理状态下获取更全面、更稳定的目标行为样本。因此，在实施干预措施时，可以根据事实证据做出明智的决定。此外，拥有基线数据有助于根据实际观察结果调整干预计划。

在收集基线数据的最初几天，由于教室里有额外的成年人，环境通常会受到一些干扰。这种改变会显着影响设置。如果有新人进入教室进行观察，他们应避免参加课堂活动，并尽量减少与孩子的互动。理想情况下，观察者应该将自己定位在不显眼的位置，也许是在视野清晰的角落，以尽量减少对课堂动态和被审查行为的影响。

一旦治疗开始，通常会继续使用治疗前基线期间采用的相同数据收集方法，以协助监测进展和评估干预的有效性。即使在治疗结束后，在某些情况下，定期随访数据收集也可能有助于识别任何消退迹象。

假设基线数据收集通常不需要我们持续观察和记录发生的每一个行为。从本质上讲，我们正在做的是收集行为样本，就像民意调查人员询问选民样本他们在即将到来的选举中支持谁一样。当抽样得当时，我们通常会获得对整体情况的合理印象。上课时间 30 到 60 分钟的样本可用于治疗与学校相关的各种行为问题，但我们经常需要每天改变时间段以获得具有代表性的样本。

事件采样包括常用的两种主要行为采样形式。第一种称为事件采样，涉及统计指定时间范围内目标行为的频率或发生率。该方法量化行为每分钟、每十分钟、每小时或任何其他指定间隔出现的频率。事实证明，事件采样对于量化具有明确起点和偏移点的离散行为很有效，例如哈利削铅笔的次数或索菲亚在 15 秒时间范围内可以识别的动物数量。计数计数，由 //// 或 // 等符号表示，通常记录事件采样数据。此外，事件抽样可能涉及测量活动的持续时间，例如索菲亚在体育课上绕赛道转一圈所需的时间，或者哈利在默读期间坐着（或站着）的总持续时间。

时间采样涉及确定行为在特定时间间隔内是否存在，使其特别适合连续或难以量化的行为。诸如发出无意义的声音或与同学交谈等行为是通常使用时间抽样进行评估的例子，因为很难区分这些行为的个别实例。在时间采样中，选择一致的、短的时间间隔，通常在 10 到 30 秒之间。如果行为发生在此时间间隔内的任何时间点，无论持续时间如何，它都会被记录为存在。一般准则是，如果行为发生的频率低于每 15 分钟一次，则事件采样可能是更合适的方法。

持续时间是指行为或一系列行为一旦启动后持续存在的时间长度。监测持续时间的变化可以表明行为有所改善。例如，如果哈利曾经发脾气十分钟，但现在他的发脾气通常持续四分钟，这被认为是进步。

可以采用多种记录方法，但根据具体情况定制方法通常是有益的。例如，教师和家长可能会选择手腕计数器或珠子计数器以便于跟踪。或者，观察者可以使用带有速记代码的记录表（例如，O 表示没有问题，S 表示离开座位，H 表示击打，Y 表示大喊大叫等）来快速记录行为。

从这些观察中收集的信息通常以视觉方式组织，通常使用方格纸，以便快速评估行为率如何随时间变化。在某些程序中，您可能会遇到一种称为标准加速度图的独特类型的方格纸，它用于一种高度专业化和有效的教学方法，称为精确教学。稍后我们将更详细地深入研究精准教学。虽然理解和解释这些图表可能需要专门的培训，但即使是小学生也可以学会使用它们来监控自己的行为。

在对问题行为进行初始定义之后，后续步骤涉及识别与之相关的前因。目标行为之前是否存在一致的出现或触发器？例如，可以观察到，每当他的老师转身离开课堂在黑板上写字时，哈利往往会做出破坏性行为，例如扔东西。认识到这些前因类似于查明第 3 章中讨论的判别刺激 （SD） 和建立作 （EO）。还记得那些吗？

迟到：在尝试确定行为或一系列活动的前因时，我们应该考虑延迟。前因和行为之间经过的时间称为延迟。哈利的潜伏期是指如果老师指示他收起蜡笔并拿出阅读书，他需要多少时间才能开始。尽管延迟通常很短，但有时会更明显。确定行为的原因通常具有挑战性，虽然非常有益，但并不总是必需的。

了解预期活动的频率和位置也很重要。你可以认为这些是某种先决条件。

目标行为发生在哪里？行为发生的主要位置是什么？它可能主要发生在学校，但很少发生在家里。它可能发生在默读期间，但不会发生在音乐课上。也许它发生在餐厅和课间休息时，但从未发生在教室里。精确定位特定设置可以深入了解强烈影响目标行为的判别刺激 （SD）。

这些设置中的事件或条件可能很重要。它可能与颜色、照明、噪音、温度等物理属性有关，或者环境中对行为产生最显着影响的某些物体或个人的存在。

此外，确定行为不发生或不经常发生的位置也至关重要。这可以为在高频设置中实施更改以减少目标行为的发生提供有价值的线索。相反，如果对需要强化或增加的行为进行分析，这些信息可以用来纵环境，鼓励 Harry 参与所需的行为。

时间是一个关键因素，因为它可以提供对目标行为潜在触发因素的洞察。午饭前不久，Harry 可能会感到饥饿吗？通常在清晨服用某些药物吗？

与位置类似，时间解决了“何时”方面，并有助于识别与行为的高频和低频发生相关的模式。然而，调查不应仅限于外部因素。正如斯金纳所说，“环境并不止于皮肤”，因此内部状态也很重要。例如，可能是 11：30，哈利正在经历强烈的饥饿感，这会影响行为。我们都亲身经历过饥饿如何影响我们的行为。或者，可能是 14：00，Sophia 在学校度过了漫长的一天后感到疲劳，也可能是 22：00，她还没有上床睡觉。

之前，我们讨论了使用计数标记来跟踪特定行为的频率。然而，在许多情况下，更有效的方法是使用所谓的散点图的变体。散点图是一种记录频率的技术，有助于确定目标行为何时发生最频繁和最不频繁。这可以像使用一张在左边距列出时间间隔的纸，然后在相应时间段旁边计算目标行为的发生情况一样简单。

例如，如果我们正在监控哈利接触同学的频率，则基本散点图的一部分可能如下所示：

10：00-10：15 //
10：16-10：30 /

从这些数据中，我们观察到 Harry 在这一小时内触摸了 13 次同学。不过，我们还注意到，其中 8 次触球发生在 10：31 到 10：45 之间，占一半以上。在查看 Harry 的日程安排后，我们发现这个时间恰好是早上的课间休息时间。这表明 Harry 环境中的某些因素发生了变化，包括他的位置、活动和成人的监督。在我们进行行为分析时，这些细节是有价值的考虑因素。

为了便于组织这些数据，许多人发现使用方格纸或开发带有网格的表格来记录数据很有用。这些表格的具体布局可能会根据特定情况的要求而有很大差异。

比前因更重要的是行为的结果，尤其是行为之后立即发生的事情。例如，也许在哈利在课堂上扔东西后，老师脸红了，大声责骂了全班同学，哈利觉得这很有趣。

有了这些额外的信息，我们可以更深入地了解情况，而不是简单地将哈利归类为攻击性。我们了解到，每次老师转身在黑板上写字时，哈利都会扔东西，导致老师的反应。这种详细的前因、行为和后果序列成为我们关注的焦点，而不仅仅是给哈利贴上攻击性的标签。

重要的是要认识到，在现实场景中，塑造、强化和维持目标行为的强化物很少出现在每次该行为之后。如前所述，间歇性强化计划在现实生活中很普遍，需要观察行为的多个实例以了解所涉及的强化因素。

下一步涉及确定是什么积极激励哈利，什么让他感到厌恶，因为这些信息将为任何干预计划的制定提供信息。有多种方法可以实现此目的。最简单的方法是直接询问哈利的喜好和不喜欢。例如，使用强化调查时间表等工具可以非常有效，特别是对于高中生和成年人。同样，这项调查也有专门针对小学生的版本，例如儿童强化调查表。这些资源以及许多其他专为儿童工作而量身定制的资源可以在 Cautela、Cautela 和 Esonis （1983） 的“儿童行为分析表格”等出版物中访问。此外，还可以从哈利的照顾者和熟悉他的个人那里收集见解，以全面了解他的喜好和厌恶。看护人还可以利用为父母量身定制的强化调查计划，就孩子的喜好和厌恶提供有价值的意见。

普雷马克原则。另一种识别强化物的方法包括观察哈利，看看他在有多种选择的情况下倾向于选择哪些活动。从本质上讲，在确定强化物时，哈利在给定选择时更频繁地从事的活动通常可以用作其他活动的强化物。作为一般规则，从事一个人通常喜欢或经常参与的行为可以强化不太常见的行为。例如，如果一个不喜欢做家务的习惯性吸烟者发现他们只有在完成家务后才能吸烟，他们可能会更有动力快速完成家务。这个概念有时被称为“奶奶法则”，其中所需的活动取决于完成不太受欢迎的任务。例如，奶奶可能会对哈利说：“在你完成作业之前，你不能玩电子游戏。这种方法被称为 Premack 原则，涉及使用高概率行为来强化低概率行为。例如，哈利可能更喜欢与朋友聊天而不是做作业，因此使用手机的机会可能取决于先完成一定数量的家庭作业。通过仔细实施，访问哈利过度感兴趣的活动或物品可以有效地强化其他行为。

一般加固水平 （GLR）。通常，当一个人最近经历了有限的强化时，强化剂具有更大的影响力。相反，如果某人一直得到强化，则特定的强化因素的影响可能会较小。这种加固的整体状态通常称为加固的一般级别。

重要的是要注意，强化物可以采取多种形式，既可以是有形的（如款待）或无形的（如善意的姿态）。然而，构成强化物的要素因人和情况而异。在某一时刻和某种情况下对哈利起到强化作用的东西，可能在另一个时间或不同的环境中不会产生相同的效果。例如，即使 Harry 喜欢鸡肉沙拉三明治，他也可能不会在沉迷于丰盛的感恩节晚餐后立即为它工作。

虽然这些方法可以为识别强化物提供一个起点，但确定其有效性的最可靠方法是通过实验。通过测试潜在的强化物并观察它们对行为的影响，我们可以更清楚地了解真正激励 Harry 的因素。

强化采样是有时用于引入潜在新强化因子的一种方法。它涉及非偶然地提供各种可能的强化剂，这意味着最初不需要获得它们。从本质上讲，它们是免费提供的，无需任何特殊作即可访问它们。这个概念类似于在超市收到新食品的免费样品，或者通过邮件获得新产品的样品以鼓励尝试它们，希望以后可能会购买更多。同样，在行为上下文中，强化采样的运作原理相同。

虽然识别积极强化物的方法也可以用于识别厌恶刺激，但我们现在将重点强调积极的方法。

在考虑强化剂时，记住社会强化的重要性至关重要，如第 4 章所述。社会强化需要得到他人的关注，这对许多人来说可能是一个有效的强化剂。人类天生就是社会动物，注意力可以以各种形式表现出来，例如微笑、口头赞美、身体手势或眼神交流。有趣的是，对于一些具有独特背景的人来说，即使是各种形式的负面关注，如责骂或身体接触，也可以起到强化作用。然而，不幸的是，社会强化对许多 ASD 患者可能不如对其他人有效。

我们现在正处于行为分析的阶段，我们必须决定如何处理目标行为。我们必须制定一个程序并尝试一下。我们查看迄今为止收集的信息。我们使用我们的作化行为来指定行为目标作为要努力实现的目标。当然，对于哈利在课堂上扔东西，最简单的解决方案是消除 SD，即歧视性刺激，在这个假设的情况下，老师转过身在黑板上写字，但这并不总是可能的。虽然刺激控制程序可能非常有帮助，但大多数 ABA 计划的肉和土豆可能会涉及某种方法的组合，以强化我们想要增加的行为，同时利用灭绝来削弱不良行为。

监测干预策略的另一种流行方法是多基线方法。当使用多个基线时，该疗法一次应用于每个新行为，但只要发生可接受的行为改变，它会在应用时逐渐扩大。当停止治疗以暂时允许问题习惯复发是不切实际的，或者当难以或极度不希望扭转这些行为时，许多基线可能特别有帮助。

As we monitor the program and continue to gather ongoing data we need to make a judgment about the changes, if any, that are taking place in Harry’s behavior. If the program isn’t working, then we have to adjust the program until it does. This may require going over some of the earlier steps again. This is where accountability comes in. We don’t want to waste everyone’s time and efforts doing things that aren’t helping. By examining and analyzing what’s going on by using scientific evidence-based methods, we can better find what is and isn’t working, and then make better decisions for changes based on science rather than on hunches. An ABA approach allows for trials of numerous interventions, but evaluates them all fairly, impartially, and scientifically. It certainly is not a one-size-fits-all approach as is sometimes seen with some other approaches.
在我们持续监测该计划并收集相关数据的过程中，需要对哈里行为中是否存在变化做出判断。若计划未见成效，则需调整计划直至其产生效果。这可能需要重新审视并优化前期部分步骤。此时，责任担当至关重要。我们不希望浪费大家的时间和精力在无益的努力上。通过运用科学证据为基础的方法，对当前情况进行分析和评估，我们可以更准确地识别哪些措施有效、哪些无效，并基于科学依据而非直觉做出更优的调整决策。应用行为分析（ABA）方法允许对多种干预措施进行试验，但会对所有措施进行公平、客观、科学的评估。它绝非像某些其他方法那样采取“一刀切”的模式。

When assessing behavior change initiatives, it’s important to temper expectations and understand that significant transformations typically don’t happen overnight. Just as bad habits don’t form instantaneously, neither do positive ones. Many of the maladaptive behaviors we aim to address have
在评估行为改变计划时，重要的是要保持现实预期，并理解重大转变通常不会一蹴而就。正如不良习惯不会瞬间形成，良好的习惯也不会。我们试图改变的许多不适应性行为
been reinforced over months or even years, so it’s realistic to anticipate that meaningful changes will take time. However, it’s crucial to recognize and draw encouragement from any trends or advancements in the desired direction, viewing them as indicators of progress and staying patient.
经过数月甚至数年的强化，因此可以合理预期，有意义的变革需要时间。然而，至关重要的是要认识到并从任何朝着预期方向的趋势或进展中汲取鼓励，将其视为进步的指标，并保持耐心。

Behavioral shifts seldom occur abruptly, and the process is often characterized by ups and downs. For instance, if Harry previously struggled to complete his reading assignments but now manages to finish them twice a week, it’s a promising improvement, albeit not the final goal. Regression is also a natural part of the journey; Harry might temporarily revert to completing assignments just twice a week after making progress to three days. During such setbacks, it’s important not to be alarmed or immediately abandon the program. Instead, exercising patience and allowing for some additional time can reveal if minor adjustments are necessary to resume progress.
行为改变很少会突然发生，这个过程通常伴随着起伏。例如，如果哈利之前一直难以完成阅读作业，但现在能够每周完成两次，这虽然不是最终目标，但确实是一个积极的进步。退步也是成长过程中自然的一部分；哈利在进步到每周完成三次作业后，可能会暂时回到每周完成两次的状态。在遇到此类挫折时，切勿惊慌或立即放弃计划。相反，保持耐心并给予更多时间，可以判断是否需要进行微调以恢复进展。

A student devised the following mnemonic sentence to aid in recalling the ten steps of a behavior analysis:
一名学生设计了以下记忆句，以帮助记忆行为分析的十个步骤：

Our Operationalize (the target behavior)
我们的操作化（目标行为）
Behavior Baseline  行为基线
Analysts Antecedents  分析师背景
Place Place  地点 地点
The Time  时间
Child Consequences  儿童后果
In Identify (positive reinforcers and aversive stimuli)
在识别（正强化刺激和厌恶刺激）中
Prudently Plan (and implement a program)
审慎规划（并实施计划）
Monitored Monitor (the program)
监控程序（该程序）
Environments Evaluate (and adjust the program)
环境评估（并调整计划）
Perhaps these steps will also aid in recalling the process!
或许这些步骤也能帮助您回忆起整个过程！

At the outset of this chapter, someone had mentioned that Harry was displaying aggressive behavior. However, throughout this entire process, the descriptor “aggressive” hasn’t proven useful to us. This illustrates why we avoid using labels like neurotic, psychotic, or emotionally disturbed. Individuals don’t neatly fit into these categories, and even if they did, it wouldn’t alter how we approach helping them. Labels are generally not particularly beneficial (though sometimes necessary for administrative purposes). While a formal medical diagnosis can be valuable in treating medical conditions and prescribing medications, it’s often less useful when employing educational and environmental interventions to address behavior. In such cases, understanding the antecedents, behaviors, and consequences (As, Bs, and Cs) of the target behaviors is far more helpful.
在本章开头，有人提到哈利表现出攻击性行为。然而，在整个过程中，“攻击性”这一描述并未对我们有所帮助。这说明了为何我们避免使用“神经质”、“精神病”或“情绪失常”等标签。个体并不完全符合这些类别，即便符合，也不会改变我们帮助他们的方式。标签通常并不特别有益（尽管有时出于行政目的必要）。虽然正式的医学诊断在治疗疾病和开具药物方面有价值，但在采用教育和环境干预措施来应对行为问题时，往往作用有限。在这种情况下，理解目标行为的先兆、行为本身及后果（即 A、B、C）要实用得多。

I don’t expect most parents and teachers to gather all this information and conduct a behavior analysis on their own. However, now you’re familiar with some of the key questions you may be asked to assist in answering, and the reasons behind them.
我并不期望大多数家长和教师能够自行收集所有这些信息并进行行为分析。然而，现在你们已经熟悉了一些可能被要求协助回答的关键问题，以及这些问题的背后原因。

Up to this point, our focus has been primarily on discussing general laws and principles, as well as a broad method for applying them. Now, we need to delve into specific applications of these behavioral laws and principles. Essentially, we need to explore what actions we can take to modify someone’s behavior.
到目前为止，我们的重点主要放在讨论一般规律和原则，以及应用这些规律和原则的广泛方法上。现在，我们需要深入探讨这些行为规律和原则的具体应用。本质上，我们需要探索我们可以采取哪些行动来改变某人的行为。

As we embark on this discussion, it’s crucial to remember that whether we’re utilizing reinforcers to strengthen behavior or aversive consequences to weaken behavior, these consequences must immediately follow the target behavior. Failing to do so runs the risk of reinforcing or punishing the wrong behavior. Additionally, it’s important to recognize that these fundamental learning processes are often employed in conjunction with each other to enhance learning outcomes.
在我们展开这一讨论时，必须明确一点：无论是利用强化物来强化行为，还是利用厌恶性后果来削弱行为，这些后果都必须紧随目标行为之后。若未能做到这一点，就有可能强化或惩罚了错误的行为。此外，还需认识到，这些基本的学习过程通常会相互结合使用，以提升学习效果。

Now, let’s examine some of the more common applications of behavior analysis frequently encountered in the realm of ABA .
现在，让我们来探讨一些在应用行为分析（ABA）领域中较为常见的应用案例。

Shaping is a method used when we need to strengthen a new behavior but don’t have the luxury of waiting for it to occur naturally. Many target behaviors are infrequent or nonexistent initially and may not even be part of the individual’s current skill set. For instance, expecting Harry to suddenly dive into the pool and start swimming the crawl stroke without any prior reinforcement is unrealistic. Therefore, shaping becomes necessary. It involves reinforcing gradual approximations of the desired behavior, gradually guiding Harry closer to the target behavior we want to achieve.
塑造是一种在需要强化新行为但无法等待其自然发生时采用的方法。许多目标行为在初期可能非常罕见甚至不存在，甚至可能不属于个体的现有技能范围。例如，期望哈里在没有事先强化下突然跳入泳池并开始游自由泳是不现实的。因此，塑造法变得必要。它通过强化目标行为的逐步近似表现，逐步引导哈里向我们希望实现的目标行为靠近。

Shaping, employs a combination of positive reinforcement and extinction. Positive reinforcement encourages behaviors that align with the desired outcome, while extinction diminishes behaviors that are not conducive to the goal. Essentially, we replace recently reinforced behaviors with improved ones that are closer to the ultimate goal. For example, if we aim to encourage Harry, who tends to be constantly on the move, to sit in his
塑造行为，采用正强化与消退相结合的方法。正强化鼓励与预期结果一致的行为，而消退则减少不利于目标实现的行为。本质上，我们用近期得到强化且更接近最终目标的行为，替换原有的行为。例如，若我们希望鼓励总是坐立不安的哈里坐下来，
seat, we might start by reinforcing him for moving closer to the seat, eventually progressing to touching it, until he finally sits down. It’s crucial not to reinforce behaviors further from the desired one than what has already been rewarded. Additionally, Harry should only be reinforced for closer approximations of the desired behavior, avoiding reinforcement for the same behavior twice until we reach the target behavior. For instance, if Harry has been reinforced for being three feet from his desk, we should not reinforce him for being four feet away or even for remaining at three feet. Instead, we should wait until he gets closer than three feet and then reinforce him promptly.
座位，我们可以先强化他靠近座位的行为，逐步过渡到触碰座位，直到他最终坐下。关键在于不要强化与目标行为距离更远的行为。此外，哈里只应因更接近目标行为的动作而获得强化，避免对同一行为重复强化直至达到目标行为。例如，如果哈里因距离书桌三英尺而获得强化，我们不应因他距离四英尺或保持在三英尺处而强化他。相反，应等待他距离书桌不足三英尺时，立即给予强化。

At times, individuals may feel hesitant to take action when they finally witness a desired behavior. They might fear disrupting the current equilibrium and opt to maintain the status quo, hoping for the best. However, this presents a golden opportunity to recognize and reinforce positive behavior.
有时，当人们终于目睹到期望的行为时，可能会犹豫不决，不敢采取行动。他们可能担心打破当前的平衡状态，因此选择维持现状，寄希望于事情会向好的方向发展。然而，这正是识别并强化积极行为的绝佳时机。

Consider the game of Hot and Cold often played with children-it’s essentially a form of shaping. By encouraging Sophia with positive reinforcement as she approaches a hidden prize, we guide her closer and closer to the target. It’s akin to a sculptor gradually refining a block of marble into a likeness of Abraham Lincoln, with each improvement reinforced along the way.
考虑一下常与儿童玩的“热与冷”游戏——这本质上是一种塑造过程。通过在索菲亚接近隐藏奖品时给予她积极强化，我们引导她一步步靠近目标。这与雕塑家逐步将一块大理石雕刻成亚伯拉罕·林肯的肖像相似，每一次改进都得到及时强化。

Shaping can also be applied to teaching Sophia to read at a fourth-grade level. Starting from the basics-learning the alphabet and simple wordsshe progresses step by step, each advancement reinforced. Similarly, the journey of learning algebra unfolds through incremental steps, from understanding numbers to mastering algebraic concepts over several years.
塑造方法也可应用于指导索菲亚达到四年级阅读水平。从基础开始——学习字母表和简单单词——她逐步进步，每次进步都得到巩固。同样，学习代数的过程也是通过逐步推进的步骤展开的，从理解数字到掌握代数概念，历时数年。

Social behaviors like cooperative play can also be shaped. Children might initially be reinforced for playing near each other, then for verbal interaction, and eventually for engaging in more complex cooperative activities.
社会行为，如合作性游戏，也可以被塑造。孩子们最初可能会因为在彼此附近玩耍而得到强化，随后因为进行语言交流而得到强化，最终因为参与更复杂的合作活动而得到强化。

In shaping, the size of the step required for reinforcement may vary, but the objective remains consistent: to encourage behaviors that increasingly resemble the target behavior.
在塑造过程中，强化所需的步骤大小可能因情况而异，但目标始终一致：鼓励行为逐渐趋向目标行为。

Response differentiation, akin to shaping, involves a process where certain behaviors occur intermittently but not typically up to desired standards. With response differentiation, only those instances of the behavior that meet acceptable standards are reinforced. These variations in behavior may involve different aspects such as strength, duration, rate, or speed. This method assists individuals in discerning which forms or standards of behavior are acceptable and which are not. For instance, a teacher could employ response differentiation to help Harry consistently improve his legible penmanship, or a speech therapist might utilize it to teach Harry to consistently articulate more clearly. Behaviors that closely resemble the desired goals are reinforced, while less polished attempts are discouraged.
反应分化，类似于塑造，是一种过程，其中某些行为会间歇性地出现，但通常未达到预期标准。在反应分化中，仅对符合可接受标准的行为实例进行强化。这些行为的变异可能涉及不同方面，如强度、持续时间、频率或速度。此方法有助于个体辨别哪些行为形式或标准是可接受的，哪些是不被接受的。例如，教师可运用反应分化帮助哈里逐步提升书写清晰度，或语言治疗师可通过此方法指导哈里持续改善发音清晰度。与目标行为高度一致的尝试会被强化，而不够成熟的尝试则会被抑制。

Behavioral drift Understanding shaping and response differentiation should make it easier to understand behavioral drift. We don’t always perform behaviors the same way each and every time we do them. After all, we’re not robots, are we? Whether it’s taking a foul shot in basketball, playing a song on a piano, or greeting an acquaintance we have just run into, there are often small, sometimes larger and more noticeable differences in our behavior. We might have a typical or average way of doing something, but once in a while we do it a little better and other times we do it a little worse, more this way or more that way. Factors that remain consistent in the environment work to keep the form or topography of the behavior close to that typical performance most of the time. When some of these controlling factors are removed or lose their effectiveness, other factors may start having greater influence and the behavior starts to deviate even more from the previously typical behavior. This process is sometimes called behavioral drift. Physicists use the term entropy to describe the tendency of the amount of disorder in a system to increase over time if things are left to themselves. Same idea. In the natural environment, where the effective feedback and contingencies are less consistent, we are more often taking our chances with random, inconsistent antecedents and consequences, so even well-trained and practiced behavior patterns have a tendency to get sloppy if we’re not careful. To avoid excessive drift, we still need occasional positive
行为漂移理解塑造和反应差异化应有助于更好地理解行为漂移。我们并不总是以完全相同的方式执行同一行为。毕竟，我们不是机器人，对吧？无论是投篮、弹奏钢琴曲，还是与刚遇到的熟人打招呼，我们的行为中常常存在细微差异，有时这些差异会更加明显。我们可能有某种典型或平均的做事方式，但偶尔我们会做得更好，有时则稍逊一筹，或偏向某一方向。环境中保持一致的因素会使行为的形式或结构大部分时间保持在典型表现附近。当某些控制因素被移除或失去效力时，其他因素可能开始发挥更大影响，行为便会进一步偏离先前典型的表现。这一过程有时被称为行为漂移。物理学家使用“熵”这一术语来描述系统中混乱程度随时间增加的趋势，如果系统被放任自流。同理。在自然环境中，由于有效反馈和条件的不一致性较低，我们更常面临随机且不一致的先兆和后果，因此即使是经过良好训练和练习的行为模式，如果不加注意，也容易变得松散。为了避免过度漂移，我们仍然需要偶尔的积极
reinforcement to keep us on the right track, sort of like resetting a fine watch when it starts to lose time.
强化措施，帮助我们保持正确方向，就像为走慢的精密手表重新校准时间一样。

In a prosthetic or therapeutic setting, we might utilize response differentiation by employing extinction to weaken tendencies toward behavioral drift, while simultaneously using positive reinforcement to reinforce more precise behaviors that we aim to promote. Picture small tugboats gently guiding a large ocean liner towards the dock, endeavoring to keep the ship on a precise, straight course despite the influence of wind and currents trying to veer it off course. Perhaps positive feedback from a music instructor or a skating coach serves as the positive reinforcement that aids in solidifying top-level performance into a more consistent habit.
在假肢或治疗环境中，我们可能会通过采用消退技术来削弱行为漂移的倾向，同时利用正强化来强化我们希望促进的更精准行为。想象小型拖船正轻轻引导一艘大型邮轮驶向码头，努力保持船只在精准的直线航线上，尽管风和洋流试图将其偏离航线。或许音乐教师或滑冰教练的积极反馈，就如同这种正强化，有助于将高水平表现巩固为更一致的习惯。

Conversely, we might opt to leverage this tendency towards behavioral drift to our advantage. Through shaping, we can reinforce deviations that we view as improvements, while employing extinction to decrease the likelihood of the recurrence of less desirable behaviors. The goal is to progress forward and leave old habits behind.
相反，我们也可以利用这种行为漂移的倾向来为我们所用。通过塑造，我们可以强化那些我们认为是改进的行为偏差，同时通过消退来减少不希望看到的行为再次出现的可能性。目标是不断进步，摆脱旧习惯。

A common example of behavioral drift that many of us have likely encountered pertains to our handwriting. During our early school years, when teachers placed significant emphasis on neatness and letter formation, many of us probably wrote more legibly than we do now, especially if our fine-motor coordination was developing well. However, taking rapid lecture notes in high school and college often leads to a decline in handwriting quality. Moreover, few individuals these days are providing correction for sloppy handwriting.
行为漂移的一个常见例子，我们许多人可能都曾遇到过，与我们的书写习惯有关。在我们早期上学的时候，老师们非常重视整洁和字母的书写规范，因此我们当时的书写可能比现在更工整，尤其是如果我们的精细动作协调能力发展得比较好的话。然而，在高中和大学期间，快速记笔记常常导致书写质量下降。此外，如今很少有人会对潦草的书写进行纠正。

The concept of drift can extend to broader contexts, including classroom dynamics. Consider Ms. Livermoore’s class, where a consistent routine after recess involves transitioning straight into silent reading. After diligently establishing this routine during the fall semester, Ms. Livermoore is pleased to see her students adhere to it so well.
漂移的概念可以扩展到更广泛的语境，包括课堂动态。以利弗莫尔老师的课堂为例，课间休息后，学生们会直接进入安静阅读的环节。经过整个秋季学期的努力，利弗莫尔老师欣喜地发现，学生们已经很好地适应了这一常规。

However, nearing the end of November, Ms. Livermore takes maternity leave, and Ms. Mary steps in as a long-term substitute. While Ms. Mary is competent, she isn’t familiar with the “recess-to-silent-reading” policy.
然而，到了十一月底，利弗莫尔女士开始休产假，玛丽女士作为长期代课教师接替她的工作。虽然玛丽女士能力出众，但她对“课间休息转为安静阅读”的政策并不熟悉。

Initially, the class continues the old routine out of habit, but soon, some students begin to linger and chat longer before starting their work. Without Ms. Livermore’s guidance, and with Ms. Mary seeing it as a flexible period for students (within reason), the adherence to the routine weakens. Eventually, a significant portion of the students deviate from the established routine, leading to fewer students engaging in silent reading.
起初，班级出于习惯继续按照旧的常规进行，但很快，一些学生开始在开始工作前逗留并聊天更久。在没有利弗莫尔老师的指导下，且玛丽老师将此视为学生灵活安排时间的阶段（在合理范围内），对常规的遵守逐渐松懈。最终，相当一部分学生偏离了既定常规，导致参与静默阅读的学生数量减少。

This scenario illustrates a phenomenon known as behavioral drift, which extends beyond individual classrooms to impact larger social structures, such as school cultures and societal norms. This gradual process contributes to shifts in cultural practices and values over time, though exploring these broader implications requires a separate discussion.
该情景展示了一种被称为“行为漂移”的现象，其影响范围超越了单个教室，进而波及更广泛的社会结构，如学校文化和社会规范。这一渐进过程会导致文化实践和价值观随时间推移而发生转变，然而，探讨这些更深远的影响则需要另行讨论。

It’s worth noting that the degree of behavioral drift varies depending on the context.
值得注意的是，行为偏离的程度会因具体情境而异。

Behavioral momentum refers to the phenomenon where behavior that has been consistently reinforced, particularly on intermittent schedules, demonstrates resistance to change even when reinforcement diminishes or ceases. This resistance to change is termed as the behavior’s response strength, akin to an object’s inertia in physics-persisting in its current trajectory until acted upon by an external force. Utilizing procedures grounded in behavioral momentum can prove beneficial in addressing instances of noncompliance. For instance, if Harry consistently refuses to take out the trash when asked, a strategy could involve establishing behavioral momentum beforehand. This might entail initiating a series of high-probability commands that Harry is likely to comply with, such as showing his favorite toy, turning on the TV, fetching snacks from the car, etc. By gradually building momentum and reinforcing compliance, the likelihood of Harry eventually complying with the request to take out the trash is increased. While not foolproof, research suggests this approach can improve compliance rates and is certainly worth attempting.
行为惯性指的是，当某种行为在间歇性强化下被持续强化后，即使强化减少或停止，该行为仍表现出对改变的抵抗力。这种对改变的抵抗力被称为行为的反应强度，类似于物理学中物体的惯性——在受到外部力量作用前，物体将保持其当前运动轨迹。基于行为惯性的干预程序在处理不遵守行为时可能具有积极效果。例如，如果哈里在被要求倒垃圾时始终拒绝，可以采取建立行为惯性的策略。这可能包括发起一系列哈里很可能遵守的高概率指令，如展示他最喜欢的玩具、打开电视、从车里拿零食等。通过逐步积累动量并强化遵守行为，哈里最终遵守“倒垃圾”请求的可能性会增加。虽然并非万无一失，但研究表明这种方法可以提高遵守率，值得一试。

By starting the day with well-liked activities, teachers may help students have a pleasant start to the day. The less fun labor can be completed once things get going, and at the conclusion of the day, return to the more well-
通过以学生喜爱的活动开始一天的课程，教师可以帮助学生愉快地开启新的一天。当课程逐渐进入正轨后，可以安排完成那些不太有趣的任务，而在一天结束时，再回到那些更受学生欢迎的活动。
liked pursuits. This is similar to assembling a sandwich where the laborious task is sandwiched between two pieces of more stimulating activity.
喜好的活动。这类似于制作三明治，其中繁琐的任务被夹在两项更具吸引力的活动之间。

Chaining. Chaining is the process of joining two or more relatively simple behaviors together to form a longer, more complicated chain of activities. Harry may be instructed to clean his teeth, for instance, by wetting the brush first, applying paste to it, and then sweeping the brush over his teeth. Alternatively, to put on a shoe first, tighten the laces, and then tie the knot. The different processes are taught in order of instruction. Chaining is not the same as shaping because we still want Harry to complete every step.
链式行为。链式行为是指将两个或多个相对简单的行为连接起来，形成一个更长、更复杂的行为链。例如，可以指导哈里先湿润牙刷，然后涂上牙膏，再用牙刷刷牙。或者，先穿上鞋子，系紧鞋带，最后打结。这些不同的过程是按照指令顺序教给哈里的。链式训练与塑造不同，因为我们仍然希望哈里完成每一个步骤。

Reverse chaining, also known as backward chaining, involves beginning with the final step and adding preceding steps incrementally. For instance, let’s say we’re teaching Sophia a sequence of tasks. Initially, she learns to move the toothbrush over her teeth, while the toothpaste has already been applied for her. Then, she learns to apply toothpaste to the toothbrush herself. This creates a short chain of actions. Subsequently, we introduce steps like retrieving the toothbrush, gradually lengthening the chain and fostering Sophia’s independence. The earlier steps in the chain, having been practiced more extensively, are reinforced more strongly compared to the newer steps. Each step in the chain serves a dual role: reinforcing the preceding behavior and acting as a discriminative stimulus for the subsequent behavior. This relationship is akin to both being a child and a parent-each step reinforces what came before and cues what comes next.
逆向链式教学法，也称为逆向链式教学，是指从最终步骤开始，逐步添加前置步骤。例如，假设我们正在教索菲亚完成一系列任务。起初，她学会将牙刷在牙齿上移动，而牙膏已经为她涂好。随后，她学会自己将牙膏涂在牙刷上。这形成了一个简短的动作链。接下来，我们引入如取牙刷等步骤，逐步延长动作链并促进索菲亚的独立性。链条中的早期步骤由于练习次数更多，强化程度也更强，相比于新步骤。链条中的每个步骤都发挥双重作用：强化前一步行为，并作为后续行为的辨别刺激。这种关系类似于孩子与父母的关系——每个步骤既强化前一步，又提示下一步。

Every link in a chain reinforces the preceding behavior and serves as a signal for more reinforcement if the chain continues. As the sequence of behaviors leading to a goal unfolds, it gains momentum, making it increasingly difficult to halt. Many of us can relate to this phenomenon when trying to stick to a diet. If we have a stash of cookies hidden away, once we start the process of indulging, it becomes progressively harder to resist, akin to a snowball rolling downhill. This pattern of escalating difficulty applies not only to cookie consumption but also to other consummatory behaviors like smoking and drinking. These habits are easier to interrupt early in the chain, and it might be even more effective to avoid the initial temptation altogether.
链条中的每一个环节都会强化前一个行为，并作为信号促使链条继续强化。当一系列行为朝着目标展开时，它会逐渐积累动能，使得停止变得越来越困难。许多人在尝试坚持饮食计划时都能体会到这种现象。如果我们藏了一包饼干，一旦开始享受的过程，就越来越难以抗拒，就像一个雪球越滚越大。这种难度逐渐增加的模式不仅适用于饼干的消费，也适用于吸烟和饮酒等其他消费行为。这些习惯在链条的早期阶段更容易被中断，而完全避免最初的诱惑可能效果更好。

Consider the example of snacking on potato chips-a company once advertised their product with the slogan “Bet you can’t eat just one!” How often can we truly stop at just one bite? This natural chain of behavior is one we’re better off breaking early.
以吃薯片为例——某公司曾用“敢说你吃一个就停得住！”作为广告语。我们真的能只吃一口就停下来吗？这种自然的行为链条，我们最好尽早打破。

Backward chaining is a useful method for memorizing various materials such as lists, poems, prayers, and songs. By starting from the end and working backward, each subsequent section becomes more firmly ingrained in memory, reducing the likelihood of forgetting and increasing the chances of successful recall. Backward chaining often proves more efficient than forward chaining because the final link is closer to the reward, and newly added links are reinforced sooner, becoming effective reinforcers themselves more quickly.
逆向链式记忆法是一种记忆各种材料（如列表、诗歌、祈祷文和歌曲）的有效方法。该方法从末尾开始，逐步向回推导，使每个后续部分在记忆中逐渐巩固，从而降低遗忘的可能性并提高成功回忆的概率。与正向链式记忆法相比，逆向链式记忆法通常更高效，因为最终环节更接近奖励，新添加的环节能更快得到强化，并迅速成为有效的强化因素。

To teach someone a new behavior, a number of these techniques are combined. Behaviors are frequently learned by shaping, made stronger by reinforcement, prompted by SDs, and assembled into chains.
要教某人一种新行为，通常会结合使用多种技术。行为通常通过塑造来学习，通过强化来加强，通过条件刺激（SDs）来提示，并最终组合成行为链。
Although chaining has been discussed as a means of fostering positive conduct, it has also occasionally been employed to weaken negative behavior. A procedure loses effectiveness as it becomes more and more complicated, delaying reinforcement and making it farther away. Grievance and consumer complaint procedures are sometimes made to be so drawn out and difficult to use that few people use them at all, or if they do, most give up before completing the process.
尽管链式强化被视为促进积极行为的手段，但它也偶尔被用于削弱负面行为。随着程序变得越来越复杂，其有效性会逐渐降低，强化反馈的延迟会使强化效果变得更加遥远。投诉和消费者申诉程序有时会被设计得异常冗长且难以使用，导致很少有人愿意使用这些程序，或者即使有人尝试，大多数人在完成整个流程前就会放弃。

Gradually, once a behavior is established through reinforcement and cues such as artificial prompts or cues, these cues can be phased out, or gradually reduced, from the situation, allowing more natural cues to prompt the behavior. For instance, handwriting programs that initially provide visual guides for learners to trace complete words or letters, then transition to partial letters with decreasing guidance, and finally solely lined paper, while ensuring the quality of the writing remains satisfactory, demonstrate the concept of fading. The reinforcement of the target behavior persists while the cues are slowly diminished. Typically, it’s advisable to start fading prompts from the end of the behavior chain since the final links are usually the strongest.
随着时间的推移，当一种行为通过强化和提示（如人工提示或线索）建立起来后，这些提示可以逐步减少或最终从情境中移除，从而让更自然的提示来引发该行为。例如，手写训练程序最初会为学习者提供视觉指南，让他们 tracing 完整的单词或字母，随后过渡到提供部分字母并逐步减少指导，最终仅提供带线纸张，同时确保书写质量保持在可接受范围内，这体现了“消退”的概念。目标行为的强化持续存在，而提示则逐渐减少。通常建议从行为链的末端开始消退提示，因为末端环节通常是最牢固的。

Consider teaching Sophia to safely cross a street as another illustration. Initially, you accompany Sophia to the crosswalk and instruct her to stop and wait. Then, you offer a series of detailed verbal prompts like “Check both ways,” “Verify if the pedestrian crossing lights show ‘Walk!’ instead of 'Don’t Walk!”", and so forth. As Sophia correctly follows the sequence with detailed prompts, these prompts are gradually reduced to shorter, less specific ones, perhaps even prompting her with a question like “We’re at the corner, what’s next?”
以教索菲亚安全过马路为例。起初，你陪同索菲亚走到斑马线，并指导她停下并等待。随后，你提供一系列详细的口头提示，如“左右观察”、“确认行人过街信号灯显示‘可以通行’而非‘禁止通行’”等。当索菲娅能正确按照提示完成步骤时，这些提示逐渐简化为更简短、更笼统的提示，甚至可以以问题形式提示，例如“我们到了路口，接下来该做什么？”

Have you ever trained a dog to come when called? Perhaps you did it like this: initially, your verbal command “Come” was accompanied by pulling on the leash, then a gentler tug as a reminder, until eventually, the verbal command alone sufficed. You gradually phased out your assistance until Lassie responded to your call independently (assuming you treated Lassie kindly upon arrival, naturally).
你曾经训练过狗狗在被叫时过来吗？也许你是这样做的：最初，你的口头指令“过来”会伴随着拉扯牵引绳，然后是轻轻一拉作为提醒，直到最终仅凭口头指令即可生效。你逐渐减少辅助，直到拉西能独立回应你的召唤（当然，前提是你对拉西的到来给予了善待）。

Generalization pertains to the extension of the impacts of stimuli and behaviors from specific occurrences to broader or more general contexts. While there are various types of generalization, our focus primarily revolves around ensuring Harry appropriately employs certain behaviors across various situations. Following considerable effort in a distinct, highly structured scenario, a teacher might train Harry to react when addressed with “Good morning, Harry,” by maintaining good eye contact, smiling, and responding with “Good morning, Ms. Smith.” However, the ultimate objective is for Harry to replicate this response with Mrs. Brown, the principal, and Mr. Jones, the custodian. For instance, if Sophia recognizes Mrs. Robinson as a lady and labels her as such upon encountering her, she might generalize this designation to other women like Ms. Smith, Mrs. Sullivan, and Mrs. Ryan. Consequently, there are more stimuli eliciting the same response, namely, the term “lady.” This phenomenon is termed stimulus generalization.
概括化是指将刺激和行为的影响从特定情境扩展到更广泛或更一般的情境。虽然存在多种类型的概括化，但我们的重点主要在于确保哈里能够在不同情境中恰当地运用某些行为。在经过在特定、高度结构化的情境中进行大量训练后，教师可能教会哈里在听到“早上好，哈里”时，通过保持良好眼神接触、微笑并回应“早上好，史密斯女士”来做出反应。然而，最终目标是让哈里能够将这种反应复制到布朗太太（校长）和琼斯先生（校工）等其他人身上。例如，如果索菲亚识别出罗宾逊太太是女士并将其正确归类，她可能会将这一归类推广到其他女性，如史密斯女士、沙利文太太和瑞安太太。因此，引发相同反应的刺激更多，即“女士”这一术语。这一现象被称为刺激泛化。

For many of us, once we’ve acquired or learned new behaviors, it’s usually effortless to perform them anywhere, anytime. However, individuals with special needs, including children and adults, often face greater challenges in generalizing these behaviors across various situations. It often requires
对于我们中的许多人来说，一旦我们掌握或学会了新的行为，通常可以在任何时间、任何地点轻松地执行这些行为。然而，对于有特殊需求的人群，包括儿童和成人，他们在将这些行为推广到不同情境中时往往面临更大的挑战。这通常需要
additional effort to help these behaviors extend to a broader range of contexts, ideally reaching the familiar natural environment. This process may involve directly teaching the new behavior in multiple settings, often relying on stimulus control techniques. This broader training process is sometimes referred to as transfer training. Another aspect is response generalization, where the same stimulus can elicit different responses. For instance, Sophia might initially say “Mama” upon seeing her mother, but over time, she may also say “Mommie,” “Mother,” or “Mom.” This exemplifies response generalization, as the stimulus remains constant while the responses diversify.
为了帮助这些行为扩展到更广泛的场景，需要额外努力，理想情况下应延伸至熟悉的自然环境。这一过程可能涉及在多个场景中直接教授新行为，通常依赖于刺激控制技术。这种更广泛的训练过程有时被称为迁移训练。另一个方面是反应泛化，即相同的刺激可以引发不同的反应。例如，索菲亚最初看到母亲时可能会说“妈妈”，但随着时间的推移，她可能会说“妈妈咪呀”、“母亲”或“妈妈”。这体现了反应泛化，因为刺激保持不变，而反应多样化。

Harry’s speech therapist, Mrs. Sullivan, might discover that she has successfully taught Harry to articulate clearly during their sessions in the speech office. However, Harry’s classroom teacher observes that once Harry returns to class, he reverts to his habit of mumbling his words. Consequently, Mrs. Sullivan decides to spend some time in the classroom with Harry. This allows her to witness firsthand what occurs when Harry speaks and enables her to prompt him to speak clearly, providing positive reinforcement when he does so and correcting him when he doesn’t. Perhaps Mrs. Sullivan’s presence will act as a cue for Harry to speak clearly in the classroom setting. Harry might notice that his classmates pay more attention to him when his speech is comprehensible to them. Over time, Harry gradually develops the habit of speaking clearly in the classroom, and other aspects of the classroom environment begin to prompt clear speech. Eventually, Mrs. Sullivan can gradually withdraw from the classroom while Harry’s clear speech behavior is maintained by the natural consequences within the classroom environment.
哈利的语言治疗师苏利文太太可能会发现，她在语言治疗室的治疗过程中，已经成功地教会了哈利清晰地发音。然而，哈利的课堂老师观察到，一旦哈利回到教室，他就会恢复到以前含糊不清的说话习惯。因此，苏利文太太决定花些时间在教室里与哈里一起。这使她能够亲眼目睹哈里说话时的情况，并能提示他清晰发音，当他做到时给予积极强化，当他没有做到时进行纠正。或许苏利文太太的在场会成为哈里在教室环境中清晰发音的提示。哈里可能会注意到，当他的发音让同学们听得清楚时，同学们会更加关注他。随着时间的推移，哈里逐渐养成了在课堂上清晰表达的习惯，而课堂环境的其他方面也开始促使他清晰表达。最终，当哈里清晰表达的行为在课堂环境的自然后果下得以维持时，苏利文太太可以逐渐退出课堂。

When discussing the act of paying attention to something or someone, we typically refer to our behavior acknowledging their presence or existence. In human interactions, our attention signifies our awareness of another person’s presence. Given our social nature, attention from others serves as a potent reinforcement for most individuals. Essentially, any form of reinforcement received from someone also involves receiving their attention. Consequently, attention can acquire reinforcing qualities through its association with other reinforcers. The significance of attention as a reinforcer tends to increase when it comes from individuals important to the
当我们讨论关注某事或某人的行为时，通常指的是我们通过行为来承认其存在或存在感。在人际互动中，我们的注意力表明我们对他人存在的觉察。由于人类的社交本质，他人的注意力对大多数人而言是一种强大的强化因素。本质上，从他人处获得的任何形式的强化都包含获得其注意力的成分。因此，注意力可通过与其他强化物关联而获得强化特性。作为强化物的注意力，其重要性往往在来自对个体具有重要意义的人时更为显著。
recipient. Attention manifests in various ways, such as a smile, a word, physical touch, eye contact, laughter, or even physical actions like a punch or a kick. Thus, attention typically functions to encourage behavior, constituting positive reinforcement. In educational settings like a classroom, attention can originate from various sources, including teachers and peers, all of which can significantly reinforce behavior. Notably, the nature of attention need not always be pleasant to be reinforcing. In classrooms, for instance, teacher reprimands sometimes reinforce undesired behavior or, at best, remain neutral and ineffective. Occasionally, being scolded by a teacher in front of classmates can be remarkably reinforcing due to the public nature of the situation. This public reprimand amid a laughing audience can complicate matters, potentially increasing the behavior the teacher seeks to diminish. Soft reprimands, termed as such to denote discreetly addressing Harry in public to minimize reinforcement of unwanted behavior by classmates, contrast with more public reprimands, which may inadvertently reinforce the behavior.
接收者。注意以多种形式表现出来，例如微笑、言语、身体接触、眼神交流、笑声，甚至包括拳打脚踢等身体动作。因此，注意通常起到鼓励行为的作用，构成正强化。在教育环境如课堂中，注意可能来自多种来源，包括教师和同伴，所有这些来源都可能显著强化行为。值得注意的是，注意的性质并不一定总是愉快的才能起到强化作用。例如，在教室中，教师的批评有时会强化不希望的行为，或至少保持中立且无效。有时，教师在同学面前责备学生可能具有显著的强化作用，这是由于情境的公开性。在笑声中受到公开责备可能加剧问题，甚至增加教师试图减少的行为。温和的责备，即在公开场合以不引人注意的方式单独提醒哈里，以尽量减少同学对不良行为的强化，与公开责备形成对比，后者可能无意中强化了行为。

As we discussed earlier, by withholding attention right after a behavior you want to decrease, you may be extinguishing it. The behavior would not extinguish, of course, if the attention withheld was not reinforcing the behavior in the first place. People will often try ignoring a behavior they hope will go away, but it may not seem to do any good. Well, if that’s the case, it probably is something else, possibly attention from someone else, which is reinforcing the behavior in the first place. And of course attention from some people in some situations can be very aversive and function as a punisher, particularly for young children, or for an adolescent being teased or harassed by peers. One very common way of giving attention to someone is by giving them a compliment. When trying to give verbal compliments we want to make sure that the words we choose really do work as reinforcing compliments. Usually if the child just understands what the words mean (“You drew that picture of a tree beautifully, Sophia!”), that gets the job done. At other times the words might not seem to have formal dictionary definitions that literally make it clear that they are intended as compliments, but the context in which they are used and the enthusiasm with which they are given gets the message across. Forty-something years after I first saw the movie Mary Poppins, I still can’t find supercalifragilisticexpialidocious in my dictionary, but I still know that if
如我们之前讨论的，通过在想要减少的行为发生后立即停止给予关注，你可能正在消灭该行为。当然，如果最初给予的关注本身并未强化该行为，那么该行为就不会被消灭。人们常常试图忽视希望消失的行为，但这种方法似乎并不奏效。如果确实如此，那很可能是因为存在其他因素在起作用，可能是来自他人的注意力，而这种注意力本身正在强化该行为。当然，在某些情况下，某些人的注意力可能具有强烈的厌恶性，并作为惩罚机制发挥作用，尤其对于幼儿，或是被同龄人嘲笑或欺凌的青少年。给予他人注意力的最常见方式之一是给予赞美。在尝试给予口头赞美时，我们需要确保所选择的词语确实能起到强化作用。通常，如果孩子能理解词语的含义（例如“索菲亚，你画的这棵树真漂亮！”），就能达到目的。有时，某些词汇可能没有字典中明确的定义来表明它们是赞美，但它们使用的上下文和表达的热情会传达出赞美的意图。在我第一次看到电影《欢乐满人间》四十多年后，我仍然无法在字典中找到“supercalifragilisticexpialidocious”这个词，但我仍然知道，如果
someone tells me that something I did was supercalifragilisticexpialidocious, it is probably meant as a compliment. When working with children who have more limited verbal repertoires and who have difficulty with the less-literal meaning of words, we need to be particularly sensitive to the effects of new verbal compliments that we may be using. Delivering these verbal compliments enthusiastically and occasionally pairing them with already established reinforcers can be a big help.
有人告诉我，我做的一件事“超级棒”，这很可能是作为赞美之词。在与语言表达能力有限且难以理解词汇字面含义的儿童合作时，我们需要特别注意我们使用的新的语言赞美对他们的影响。热情地表达这些语言赞美，并偶尔与已建立的强化物相结合，可以起到很大的帮助作用。

While employing verbal compliments as a form of attention to reinforce positive behavior is generally effective, a potential issue arises when compliments become repetitive and lack enthusiasm. Sophia might tune out after hearing “Very good, Sophia!” repeatedly, reaching a point where it no longer registers.
虽然使用口头表扬作为关注形式来强化积极行为通常是有效的，但当表扬变得重复且缺乏热情时，可能会出现问题。索菲亚在反复听到“索菲亚，你做得很好！”后可能会开始分心，最终达到不再有任何反应的程度。

Thankfully, there are numerous ways to offer compliments. When considering reinforcers, it’s crucial to recognize that variety adds excitement to life, and most reinforcers benefit from occasional change or rest. However, we must also be mindful that some children resist change and prefer routine. Thus, it’s essential to observe how alterations in Harry’s environment affect his behavior. Ultimately, if something functions as a reinforcer, it is one; if it doesn’t, it’s not.
幸运的是，表达赞美的方式多种多样。在考虑强化物时，必须认识到多样性能为生活增添趣味，而大多数强化物在偶尔改变或休息时效果更佳。然而，我们也需注意，部分儿童可能抵触变化并偏好常规。因此，观察哈利环境中的改变对其行为的影响至关重要。最终，如果某物能起到强化作用，它就是强化物；如果不能，就不是。

I recall my cousin, an elementary school teacher, sharing that when she began teaching, her mother (my aunt) provided her with a helpful list of compliments for her students. One such list, titled “99 Ways to Say Very Good,” created by Arzella Dirksen, the founder of HelpCenter 4, a consumer hotline at KCNC television in Denver, Colorado, has circulated for some time and offers a great starting point for adding variety to our praise. Over the years, I’ve also encountered other examples of varied compliments, including:
我记得我的表妹，一位小学教师，曾分享过这样一个故事：当她刚开始教书时，她的母亲（我的姑姑）给她提供了一份实用赞美清单，供她用来表扬学生。其中一份清单名为“99 种说‘非常好’的方式”，由阿泽拉·迪尔克森（Arzella Dirksen）创作。她是科罗拉多州丹佛市 KCNC 电视台消费者热线“HelpCenter 4”的创始人。这份清单流传已久，为我们在表扬他人时增添多样性提供了绝佳的起点。多年来，我还遇到过其他形式的表扬语句，例如：

When offering verbal praise, it’s crucial that Harry and Sophia understand precisely what action we’re commending. Just because we comprehend it doesn’t guarantee others, especially children, will. We shouldn’t assume. Therefore, be prepared to provide specific details in your remarks to avoid confusion. For example, saying, “Great job on your spelling today, Sophia,” ensures clarity and alignment.
在给予口头表扬时，确保哈里和索菲亚清楚地明白我们正在表扬的具体行为至关重要。仅仅因为我们理解了并不意味着他人，尤其是孩子，也会理解。我们不应想当然。因此，在表扬时要准备好提供具体细节，以避免混淆。例如，说“索菲亚，你今天的拼写做得很好”就能确保表扬的清晰和准确。

I’m sure you could add many more variations of “Well done!” to this list as well. However, regardless of how you express “Well done!”, always convey it genuinely.
我相信你还可以为这个列表添加许多其他版本的“干得漂亮！”。然而，无论你如何表达“干得漂亮！”，都要确保发自内心。

Differential reinforcement involves selectively reinforcing certain behaviors depending on the context. While there are behaviors we’re eager to reinforce consistently, especially when they’re newly acquired, most behaviors are suitable in specific situations. This concept entails reinforcing a behavior in certain circumstances while withholding reinforcement in others. These circumstances might revolve around the presence or absence of particular stimuli, reminiscent of the concepts of discriminative stimuli (SDs) and S-deltas. For instance, Sophia’s singing might be praised during choir practice, but if she starts singing the same song during reading class, no reinforcement occurs. Additionally, although Sophia’s singing may be
差异强化是指根据情境有选择地强化某些行为。虽然有一些行为我们希望一致地强化，尤其是在它们刚被掌握时，但大多数行为在特定情境下才是合适的。这一概念意味着在某些情境下强化某一行为，而在其他情境下则不给予强化。这些情境可能与特定刺激的存在或缺失有关，这与辨别刺激（SDs）和 S-delta 的概念相似。例如，索菲亚在合唱排练时唱歌可能会受到表扬，但如果她在阅读课上唱同一首歌，则不会获得强化。此外，尽管索菲亚的唱歌行为可能
rewarded when performed well during choir practice, it may not receive reinforcement if she sings off-key or too quickly.
在合唱排练中表现良好时会得到奖励，但如果她唱走调或唱得太快，可能不会得到强化。

Recall our discussion from Chapter 4 regarding continuous, intermittent, and ratio reinforcement schedules? Well, the application of reinforcement schedules extends beyond that.
还记得我们在第四章中讨论过的连续强化、间歇强化和比率强化计划吗？其实，强化计划的应用范围远不止于此。

DRO, or differential reinforcement of other behavior, is a commonly employed strategy to diminish and eliminate problematic behaviors. DRO operates on interval reinforcement schedules. Essentially, in DRO, individuals like Harry receive reinforcement according to a predetermined schedule as long as they refrain from engaging in the targeted behavior during that time frame. Any behavior other than the targeted one is reinforced in DRO. While DRO can effectively reduce the targeted behavior quickly, there is a risk of inadvertently reinforcing another undesirable behavior. Although extinction and time-out (discussed later in this chapter) are generally ineffective for behaviors sustained by automatic reinforcement, strategies like DRO and other forms of differential reinforcement can prove beneficial.
DRO（差异强化其他行为）是一种常用的策略，用于减少和消除问题行为。DRO 基于间隔强化日程表运行。本质上，在 DRO 中，像哈里这样的个体只要在指定时间段内不参与目标行为，就会根据预先设定的日程表获得强化。在 DRO 中，除目标行为外的任何其他行为均会被强化。虽然 DRO 能快速有效地减少目标行为，但存在无意中强化其他不良行为的风险。尽管消退法和时间暂停（本章后文将讨论）通常对由自动强化维持的行为无效，但 DRO 及其他形式的差异强化策略仍可能带来积极效果。

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI) is another form of selective reinforcement. In DRI, Harry must engage in a behavior that cannot coexist with the targeted behavior. For instance, if Harry habitually chews his fingernails, he may receive reinforcement when engaging in actions such as clapping his hands, playing a musical instrument, or swinging a baseball bat-activities that are incompatible with fingerchewing. Thus, in DRI, two conditions are met: the absence of the target behavior and the performance of an alternative behavior that precludes the target behavior simultaneously. Encouraging the substitution of productive, adaptive behaviors for undesirable ones, which are incompatible with each other, is a common strategy in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and behavior therapy.
差异强化不相容行为（DRI）是选择性强化的一种形式。在 DRI 中，哈里必须从事一种与目标行为无法共存的行为。例如，如果哈里有咬指甲的习惯，当他从事拍手、演奏乐器或挥动棒球棒等与咬指甲不相容的活动时，他可能会获得强化。因此，在 DRI 中，满足两个条件：目标行为的缺失，以及同时执行一种替代行为，该行为阻止目标行为的发生。鼓励用有益的、适应性的行为替代相互不相容的不良行为，是应用行为分析（ABA）和行为疗法中常见的策略。

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA), on the other hand, involves reinforcing a specific alternative behavior instead of merely
差异强化替代行为（DRA）则不同，它涉及强化特定的替代行为，而非仅仅
any behavior other than the target behavior (as in Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior, or DRO). In its broadest sense, DRA resembles DRI, except that the alternative behavior reinforced doesn’t necessarily have to be incompatible with the target behavior. For instance, if Harry enjoys gaining attention by poking his classmate Sophia, his teacher might opt for DRA instead of attempting to extinguish the behavior by ignoring it. Instead, Harry is encouraged to engage in an alternative behavior, such as checking off the names of classmates on a list. This alternative behavior proves to be more reinforcing for Harry, leading to a happy transition from poking to checking.
除目标行为以外的任何行为（如差异强化其他行为，即 DRO）。在最广义上，DRA 与 DRI 相似，但强化替代行为并不一定与目标行为不相容。例如，如果哈里喜欢通过戳同学索菲亚来吸引注意力，他的老师可能会选择 DRA，而不是通过忽视来试图消除这种行为。相反，哈里会被鼓励参与替代行为，如在名单上勾选同学的名字。这种替代行为对哈里来说更具强化作用，从而实现从戳人到勾选的愉快过渡。

Recall one of the challenges associated with employing extinction: the possibility of triggering an extinction burst? Well, there are situations, especially when dealing with behaviors that pose a danger to the child or others, where we simply cannot afford to risk amplifying the problematic behavior. Implementations of Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA) have at times proven effective in addressing maladaptive behaviors without eliciting the undesirable extinction burst. When utilizing DRA for this purpose, the initial step involves identifying the reinforcers that sustain or perpetuate the maladaptive behavior. Subsequently, instead of abruptly terminating reinforcement, we identify an alternative behavior and provide similar reinforcement for it. Did I mention “similar reinforcement”? While we utilize the same reinforcers, we administer them according to a more frequent or intensified reinforcement schedule.
回顾一下使用消退法时面临的挑战之一：引发消退爆发（extinction burst）的可能性。在某些情况下，尤其是当行为对儿童或他人构成危险时，我们根本无法承担加剧问题行为的风险。差异强化替代行为（DRA）的实施在某些情况下已被证明能够有效解决适应不良行为，同时避免引发不希望看到的消退爆发。在使用 DRA 时，第一步是识别维持或强化不良行为的强化物。随后，我们不突然终止强化，而是识别一种替代行为，并为其提供类似的强化。我提到过“类似强化”吗？虽然我们使用相同的强化物，但会根据更频繁或更强化的强化时间表进行发放。

For instance, on a particular occasion, Sophia, feeling exceptionally frustrated, began crying and vigorously scratching her arms during class. When this occurred, Ms. Thurber, the teacher’s assistant, intervened by privately conversing with Sophia to soothe her. Sophia found solace in this individualized attention from Ms. Thurber and began exhibiting the crying and scratching behavior more frequently, sometimes daily, with Ms. Thurber consistently providing comfort. If we were to attempt to curb Sophia’s negative behavior by having Ms. Thurber disregard her during such episodes, it’s likely that Sophia would intensify her crying and scratching in a bid to elicit attention from Ms. Thurber again. This could disrupt the class significantly and pose serious harm to Sophia. Hence, we introduce an alternative means for Sophia to spend time alone with Ms.
例如，在某次特定情况下，索菲亚因感到异常沮丧，在课堂上开始哭泣并用力抓挠手臂。此时，教师助理瑟伯女士介入，通过与索菲亚进行私下交谈来安抚她。索菲亚从瑟伯女士的个性化关注中获得安慰，并开始更频繁地出现哭泣和抓挠行为，有时甚至每天都会发生，而瑟伯女士始终提供安慰。如果我们试图通过让瑟伯女士在这些情况下忽视索菲亚来遏制她的负面行为，很可能索菲亚会加大哭泣和抓挠的力度，以再次引起瑟伯女士的注意。这可能会严重扰乱课堂秩序，并对索菲亚造成严重伤害。因此，我们为索菲亚引入了一种替代方案，让她能够与瑟伯女士单独相处。

Thurber. For instance, we might arrange for Sophia and Ms. Thurber to take a brief walk around the school together every time Sophia successfully completes a class activity, which could occur multiple times throughout the day.
瑟伯。例如，我们可以安排索菲亚和瑟伯女士在索菲亚每次成功完成课堂活动后，一起在学校周围散步，这样的活动可能在一天中多次进行。

Currently, Ms. Thurber’s attention serves as the same reinforcer for both of the alternative behaviors, but on separate reinforcement schedules. Sophia is no longer need to harm herself in order to attract Ms. Thurber’s attention. We have raised Sophia’s overall level of reinforcement by providing more reward in her life, which is often a smart option when trying to stop a previously reinforced behavior. We can gradually reduce the reinforcement schedule for the alternative behavior to a lower level while keeping the same rate of behavior and, hopefully, avoiding the extinction explosion after all of this is finished and the maladaptive target behavior has vanished.
目前，瑟伯女士的注意力对两种替代行为起到了相同的强化作用，但采用的是不同的强化时间表。索菲亚不再需要通过自残来吸引瑟伯女士的注意力。我们通过增加索菲亚生活中获得的奖励总量，提升了她的整体强化水平。这通常是试图停止先前被强化行为时的明智选择。我们可以逐步降低替代行为的强化计划强度，同时保持行为发生频率不变，并希望在所有强化措施结束后，不良目标行为消失时，避免出现消退爆炸现象。

DRH, or Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Behavior, offers a method to accelerate the pace for individuals who are sluggish. Typically, the targeted behavior must be repeated numerous times within a relatively brief timeframe to receive reinforcement. Recently, I heard a news story about a slender individual who received an award for consuming the most hot dogs within around 15 minutes. This exemplifies DRH. For example, Sophia might need to solve ten math problems in one minute to earn an A grade, receiving a B if she takes two minutes, or a C if she takes three minutes. In another scenario, Sophia’s teacher might offer a reward to all students who can list the names of ten presidents within one minute.
DRH（差异强化高频率行为）是一种加速行为进展的方法，适用于行为迟缓的个体。通常，目标行为需在相对较短的时间内重复多次才能获得强化。最近，我听到一个新闻故事，讲述了一位身材瘦削的人在约 15 分钟内吃下最多热狗而获得奖项。这正是 DRH 的典型案例。例如，索菲亚可能需要在一分钟内解决十道数学题才能获得 A 等成绩，若用两分钟则得 B，三分钟则得 C。在另一情境中，索菲亚的老师可能会向所有能在一分钟内列出十位美国总统名字的学生发放奖励。

On the other hand, DRL, or Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior, aims to decelerate behaviors. For instance, a speech therapist assisting a student who speaks excessively quickly might employ DRL techniques to help the student learn to speak at a slower and more comprehensible pace. Teachers often strive to foster classroom participation among students. However, occasionally, a student becomes overly enthusiastic and begins monopolizing discussions by incessantly asking questions. The teacher doesn’t aim to entirely eliminate Harry’s participation but rather to reduce it to a more equitable level, allowing other students an opportunity to contribute. Consequently, the teacher decides to reinforce Harry’s attempts to participate by only calling on him when he refrains from asking questions for at least two minutes.
另一方面，DRL（低频率行为的差异强化）旨在减缓行为。例如，一位语言治疗师在帮助说话过快的一名学生时，可能会运用 DRL 技术，帮助学生学会以更慢、更清晰的语速说话。教师通常努力促进课堂参与。然而，有时学生会过于热情，通过不断提问来垄断讨论。教师并不打算完全消除哈里的参与，而是希望将其减少到一个更公平的水平，让其他学生也有机会发表意见。因此，教师决定通过只在哈里至少两分钟内不提问时才叫他发言，来强化他参与的尝试。

A Contingency Contract, also known as a Behavioral Contract, provides clear guidelines for behavior modification. When individuals understand precisely what is expected of them and the consequences of their actions, it becomes easier to effect behavioral change. While not always essential, documenting these expectations in a formal agreement can be beneficial. Essentially, a contingency contract outlines what is expected of the individual and the corresponding consequences, often following the structure “If you do A, then I will do B” or “If you do A, then you can do B.”
应急合同，又称行为合同，为行为改变提供明确的指导原则。当个人清楚地了解对他们的期望以及行为后果时，行为改变就变得更加容易。虽然并非总是必要，但将这些期望以正式协议的形式记录下来可能会有益处。本质上，应急合同明确规定了对个人的期望及其对应的后果，通常采用“如果你做 A，那么我将做 B”或“如果你做 A，那么你可以做 B”的结构。

Once drafted, it’s advantageous to distribute copies for all parties involved to sign, with a witness or two present. This formal process can motivate children to adhere to the terms of the contract and serves as a written reminder of their obligations. Involving significant adults in the child’s life, such as family members, adds social reinforcement to the contract’s effectiveness.
起草完成后，建议将合同副本分发给所有相关方签署，并有 1 至 2 名见证人在场。这一正式流程可促使孩子遵守合同条款，并作为书面提醒，明确其义务。在合同中纳入孩子生活中重要成年人（如家庭成员）的参与，可增强合同的执行力，提供社会支持。

Occasionally, contracts may contain unforeseen loopholes or other issues. Reviewing the proposed contract from the child’s perspective can help identify potential problems. Initially, it’s wise to set a limited timeframe, typically no longer than a week, to allow for graceful exit and renegotiation should any unforeseen issues arise.
有时，合同中可能存在未预见的漏洞或其他问题。从孩子的角度审阅拟议合同，有助于识别潜在问题。最初，建议设定一个有限的时间框架，通常不超过一周，以便在出现任何未预见的问题时，能够顺利退出并重新谈判。

Another valuable approach in a classroom setting is implementing some variation of a token economy. We understand the importance of promptly applying reinforcement, punishment, or response cost following the targeted behavior to avoid inadvertently altering the wrong behavior. While it might not always be feasible to deliver reinforcers immediately, it’s typically possible to provide generalized secondary reinforcers, like tokens, chips, stars, points, stickers, or tickets, which can be later exchanged for primary reinforcers. This method proves particularly beneficial for children who may not be adequately motivated by rewards or incentives that seem distant in the future, losing their perceived value and effectiveness. Offering tangible items brings the future reward much closer, enhancing its effectiveness. This principle is akin to the strategy employed by the renowned S & H Green Stamps from years ago. The desired behavior that stores aimed to promote was customers spending their money. Consequently, as soon as customers made a purchase, they would immediately receive green stamps, which they could accumulate and eventually redeem for a variety of rewards.
在课堂环境中，另一种行之有效的方法是实施某种形式的代币经济系统。我们深知，在目标行为发生后，及时给予强化、惩罚或反应成本至关重要，以避免无意中改变错误行为。虽然立即提供强化物可能并不总是可行，但通常可以提供通用次级强化物，如代币、筹码、星星、积分、贴纸或票券，这些可以在后续兑换为主要强化物。这种方法对那些可能对未来看似遥远的奖励或激励缺乏足够动力的儿童特别有效，因为这些奖励会失去其感知价值和效果。提供实物奖励能将未来奖励拉近，从而增强其效果。这一原则与多年前著名的 S&H 绿邮票计划所采用的策略如出一辙。商店希望促进的预期行为是顾客消费。因此，顾客每次购物后立即获得绿色邮票，这些邮票可累积并最终兑换成多种奖励。

Region of reinforcement. In their classrooms, some educators create what are known as reinforcement spaces. This could be a table filled with games, puzzles, books, toys, and other entertaining things to do. The kids can gain access to this area for five to ten minutes, for example, by completing their schoolwork or engaging in other positive conduct. Additionally, this method lessens the issue of reinforcer satiation.
强化区域。在课堂上，一些教育工作者会设置所谓的“强化空间”。这个区域可能摆放着游戏、拼图、书籍、玩具等有趣的物品。孩子们可以通过完成作业或参与其他积极行为，获得进入该区域的资格，每次时长为五到十分钟。此外，这种方法还能缓解强化物饱和的问题。

Training with discrete trials. A few systematic, intensive teaching techniques that are occasionally employed to teach extremely particular behaviors are referred to as “discrete trial training.” These methods, which use the same antecedent, action, and consequences repeatedly, can be extremely programmed and repetitive. For instance, a teacher might ask a pupil to name particular letters that they are repeatedly shown while seated directly across from them at a tiny table. Although it can be highly intense and run the risk of turning into an unpleasant experience for some pupils if not closely supervised, this can be a helpful technique to teach specific concepts to certain students. Further processes are required to help generalize the execution of the newly learnt behavior from the highly
离散试探训练。离散试探训练是指一种系统性、高强度教学方法，偶尔用于教授极具特定性的行为。这些方法通过反复使用相同的先行事件、动作和后果，可以高度程式化且重复性强。例如，教师可能要求学生在面对面坐在小桌前时，反复识别并说出所展示的特定字母。尽管这种方法可能非常密集，且若未密切监督可能导致部分学生产生不愉快的体验，但对于教授特定概念给某些学生而言，这仍是一种有效的教学技巧。为了帮助学生将新学行为从高度情境化的训练环境中泛化到其他情境，还需要进一步的训练过程。
artificial environment to the more natural environment, as there is typically little generalization from this strategy alone.
从人工环境到更自然的环境，因为仅凭这一策略通常难以实现良好的泛化效果。

Reaction expense. In Chapter 4, we briefly discussed reaction cost back. Recall that reaction cost is an unpleasant process with less disadvantages than punishment. One kind of response cost that is simple to include in contingency contracts is a fine. A fine schedule can be made available to the public with or without a formal contract, even though one can include a list of fines in one. Preventing students from incurring excessive debt is crucial when implementing response cost-based interventions, such as fine systems.
反应成本。在第四章中，我们简要讨论了反应成本。需要指出的是，反应成本是一种相较于惩罚具有较少缺点的负面过程。在应急合同中，罚款是一种简单易行的反应成本形式。罚款方案可通过正式合同或非正式方式向公众公开，即使在合同中列出罚款清单也是可行的。在实施基于反应成本的干预措施（如罚款系统）时，防止学生陷入过多债务至关重要。

The reinforcers that can be gained and those that can be lost should differ if you are utilizing response cost approaches in addition to reinforcement. When a reinforcer is earned, it should almost always be given (although slowly), even if the behavior in question costs the recipient of other reinforcers.
如果在强化方法中同时使用反应成本策略，则可以获得的强化物与可能失去的强化物应有所不同。当强化物被获得时，几乎总是应该给予（尽管可以逐步减少），即使该行为会使行为者失去其他强化物。

Timeout, or “time out from reinforcement,” is a term commonly used today, but both the name and the procedure are frequently misunderstood. There are instances where identifying the specific reinforcement for a behavior proves difficult, or where there are so many reinforcing factors that controlling them all becomes impractical. In such cases, if we truly aim to manage the behavior in question, we must remove Harry from the immediate environment saturated with reinforcers. This is often achieved by placing Harry in a designated timeout area, typically a space devoid of reinforcers. (Does the concept of solitary confinement sound familiar?)
时间暂停，或“暂停强化”，是当今常用的术语，但其名称和操作流程常被误解。在某些情况下，识别特定行为的强化物可能较为困难，或者存在太多强化因素，使得控制所有因素变得不切实际。在这种情况下，如果我们真正希望管理该行为，必须将哈里从充满强化物的环境中移出。这通常通过将哈里安置在指定的暂停区域来实现，该区域通常是一个没有强化物的空间。（“单独隔离”的概念是否听起来很熟悉？）

Properly executed, timeout entails separating Harry from all sources of reinforcement, either by withdrawing reinforcement from the situation or by physically relocating Harry from the environment containing reinforcers, such as sending him to a corner, behind a partition, or to an adjacent room. This action should promptly follow the targeted behavior but should be of relatively short duration. Typically, ten to fifteen minutes per incident is adequate. A general guideline is to allocate one minute of timeout for each year of the child’s age, meaning a seven-year-old might receive seven minutes of timeout. However, exceeding ten minutes, unless tantrums or other maladaptive behaviors occur, may be counterproductive. In instances
正确实施时间暂停意味着将哈里与所有强化来源隔离，具体方法包括从情境中撤销强化物，或通过物理方式将哈里从含有强化物的环境中转移，例如将其带到角落、屏风后方或相邻房间。此举应在目标行为发生后立即实施，且持续时间应相对较短。通常，每次事件的持续时间为 10 至 15 分钟。一般原则是，每分配给孩子一年的年龄，就分配一分钟的暂停时间，也就是说，一个七岁的孩子可能需要七分钟的暂停时间。然而，除非出现发脾气或其他不适应行为，否则超过十分钟可能适得其反。在某些情况下
of ongoing tantrums, the commencement of the timeout period is often postponed until the tantrum subsides.
由于持续的发脾气，暂停时间的开始通常会被推迟，直到发脾气平息下来。

In the complex realm of learning within a natural setting, timeout likely involves aspects of punishment, response cost, and extinction. However, in some cases, timeout can function as a positive reinforcer or even a negative reinforcer if the child is overstimulated in their surroundings. After all, don’t we all appreciate some peace and quiet from time to time?
在自然环境中的学习领域，时间暂停可能涉及惩罚、反应成本和消退等因素。然而，在某些情况下，时间暂停可以作为正强化或负强化，如果孩子在环境中过度兴奋。毕竟，我们不都偶尔需要一些宁静吗？

The two key points to bear in mind regarding time out are its immediacy following the target behavior, ensuring no chance for environmental reinforcement, and the setup of the time-out space devoid of any potential sources of reinforcement. This encompasses the absence of individuals to converse with, listen to, or observe. Delaying the implementation of consequences to engage in detailed explanations, negotiations, arguments, or other forms of interaction can greatly diminish or completely nullify the intended consequence’s effectiveness.
关于时间暂停，需要特别注意的两个关键点是：其一，时间暂停必须在目标行为发生后立即实施，以确保环境强化因素无法发挥作用；其二，时间暂停的实施环境必须完全隔离，不包含任何潜在的强化来源。这包括避免与任何人交谈、倾听或观察。若延迟实施后果以进行详细解释、协商、争论或其他形式的互动，将大大削弱甚至完全抵消预期后果的有效性。

Many techniques in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) entail gradual adjustments. In shaping, we reinforce a series of behaviors that progressively align with the target behavior. Thinning involves gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to maintain the behavior, while fading entails gradually reducing prompts used to encourage a behavior while maintaining the behavior’s integrity.
应用行为分析（ABA）中的许多技术都涉及逐步调整。在塑造过程中，我们通过强化一系列行为，使这些行为逐渐与目标行为一致。减弱强化是指逐步减少强化频率以维持行为，而消退则是指在保持行为完整性的同时，逐步减少用于鼓励行为的提示。

Another term incorporating the concept of fading is demand gradation. Demand gradation typically involves gradually increasing the expectations placed on the child to maintain reinforcement. This technique is commonly employed with children prone to tantrums as a means of escaping or avoiding specific demands.
另一个包含“消退”概念的术语是“需求分级”。需求分级通常涉及逐步提高对儿童的期望，以维持强化。这种技术常用于容易发脾气的儿童，作为逃避或避免特定要求的手段。

When we think of fading, we often envision something diminishing or decreasing in size, such as the fading of color in an over-washed shirt. However, fading can also describe the gradual introduction or amplification
当我们想到褪色时，通常会联想到某种事物逐渐减弱或缩小，例如过度洗涤的衬衫上颜色逐渐褪去。然而，褪色也可以用来描述某种事物的逐渐引入或强化。
of something, similar to the gradual increase in the volume of a movie soundtrack.
某事物的逐渐增加，类似于电影配乐音量的逐步提升。

Harry might ordinarily consume five bites of an apple. If he’s suddenly required to eat ten bites, it’s highly probable that he’ll react with a tantrum to avoid it. Therefore, during periods of relative stability, we might introduce an additional bite gradually, transitioning from a demand of five bites to six, until this adjustment is accepted. Then, we incrementally increase to seven bites, and so forth. This process somewhat resembles price hikes at stores or gas stations.
哈利通常会吃五个苹果片。如果突然要求他吃十个，他很可能会发脾气来避免。因此，在相对稳定的时期，我们可以逐步增加一个苹果片，从要求吃五个过渡到六个，直到这个调整被接受。然后，我们再逐步增加到七个，依此类推。这个过程有点像商店或加油站涨价。

Many practices are employed to lessen specific unsuitable behaviors; these practices appear to be common sense forms of discipline from the past.
为了减少特定的不当行为，人们采用了多种方法；这些方法似乎是过去常见的纪律措施。

Error. The definition of the phrase rectification is essentially what it sounds like. You clear up any mess you make. Children who are having tantrums occasionally knock objects over and scatter items. Corrective action would be picking things up and putting them back where they belonged.
错误。纠正的定义基本上就是字面意思。你清理自己制造的混乱。孩子在发脾气时偶尔会打翻物品或散落东西。纠正措施就是捡起物品并放回原处。

Over-correction. When something is overcorrected, it is corrected excessively. Perhaps Harry has been photographed spray-painting a wall. Our friend could also have to clean the other walls in that room in addition to erasing the graffiti he scrawled on one wall.
过度纠正。当某件事被过度纠正时，就是纠正得过于彻底。也许哈里被拍到在墙上喷漆。我们的朋友可能不仅要擦掉他涂在墙上的一处涂鸦，还得清理那间屋子里的其他墙壁。

Constructive action. Positive practice is a form of overcorrection when the youngster effectively practices executing an action correctly again. Sophia might have to kindly request, “May I please have a cookie?” five times before she gets the cookie if she yells, “Give me a cookie!”
建设性行动。积极实践是一种过度纠正的形式，当青少年有效地再次正确执行某一动作时，这种纠正便产生了效果。如果索菲亚大喊“给我一个饼干！”，她可能需要礼貌地请求“我可以请一个饼干吗？”五次才能得到饼干。

Adverse behavior. Negative practice is the repeated performance of the target behavior in the absence of reinforcement with the goal of reducing the maladaptive behavior.
不良行为。负强化是指在没有强化刺激的情况下，反复执行目标行为，以减少不适应性行为。
Negative practice has proven to be a successful tool in the therapy of tics, stuttering, and other repeated behavior patterns, including unhealthy habits like knuckle-cracking that people occasionally do unconsciously.
负面练习已被证明是治疗抽动症、口吃及其他重复性行为模式的有效方法，包括人们偶尔无意识中做出的不良习惯，如掰手指。

Negative practice has a great deal of room for abuse. It would be seen as a negative practice if Harry engaged in unacceptable behavior, like swearing, and was made to repeat it repeatedly until it started to bother him. However, there are usually better ways to deal with the intended behaviors than with Harry. In fact, I haven’t heard of it being used in this manner in a long time. I sincerely hope you will hear about it infrequently, if at all.
负面强化存在很大的滥用空间。如果哈里表现出不可接受的行为（如说脏话），并被反复要求重复该行为直至他感到困扰，这将被视为负面强化。然而，通常存在比针对哈里更有效的处理方式。事实上，我已很久未听说有人以这种方式使用负面强化。我衷心希望您今后很少甚至不再听到类似案例。

As we’re discussing practice kinds, let me also discuss two further practice kinds that are meant to reinforce learning.
在讨论练习类型时，我还要讨论两种旨在强化学习的练习类型。

Intensive practice, or massed practice, entails repeatedly performing the same action within a relatively brief timeframe. In some respects, massed practice resembles an intensified version of positive practice. Many of us have likely encountered a form of massed practice when cramming for an exam. For instance, if Harry has a spelling test on Friday, he might opt to study the same words repetitively for an hour on Thursday night.
密集练习，或称集中练习，指在相对较短的时间内反复进行同一动作。从某种意义上说，集中练习类似于强化版的积极练习。我们许多人在备考时可能都经历过集中练习。例如，如果哈利周五要参加拼写测试，他可能会选择在周四晚上花一个小时反复练习相同的单词。

Contrarily, distributed practice, or scattered practice, involves distributing learning sessions across multiple intervals over an extended period. Unlike massed practice, where all efforts are concentrated within a short span, distributed practice spreads out learning sessions over time. If Harry plans ahead for his spelling test and dedicates 15 minutes each night from Monday to Thursday to study the same words, he still accumulates a total of one hour of study time. Assuming sufficient practice or study occurs to grasp the material, distributed practice typically yields better long-term retention or recall.
相反，分散练习（或称分段练习）是指将学习 session 分散到多个时间段，并在较长时期内进行。与集中练习不同，集中练习将所有努力集中在短时间内，而分散练习则将学习 session 均匀分布在时间上。如果哈里提前为拼写测试做准备，并从周一到周四每天晚上抽出 15 分钟学习相同的单词，他仍然累计了总共一小时的学习时间。假设学习或练习量足够以掌握材料，分散练习通常能带来更好的长期记忆或回忆效果。

While cramming for an exam may yield satisfactory results in the short term, the effectiveness of the learned material tends to diminish over time.
虽然临时抱佛脚可能在短期内取得满意的考试成绩，但所学知识的有效性往往会随着时间的推移而逐渐减弱。

Training is a term used to encompass various methods aimed at instructing individuals on how to effectively engage with others. This training often focuses on teaching behaviors such as maintaining eye contact, observing appropriate social distances, and engaging in handshakes. Video technology proves to be an invaluable tool for demonstrating proper behavior and offering feedback to participants.
培训是一个用于概括各种旨在指导个人如何有效与他人互动的方法的术语。此类培训通常侧重于教授诸如保持眼神交流、保持适当社交距离以及进行握手等行为规范。视频技术在展示正确行为并为参与者提供反馈方面，已被证明是一种不可或缺的工具。

Early research on social competency training often revolved around teaching “dating” skills to college students. There were several reasons for this focus, including the ease of recruiting student volunteers for research studies. Universities serve as hubs for psychological research, with faculty and graduate students conducting studies utilizing the ample pool of undergraduate student volunteers available. These volunteers are typically compensated with small payments or offered extra credit in psychology courses for their participation. Moreover, since many college students seek to enhance their social interactions, they are often eager to participate in such studies. This combination of factors ensures a readily available supply of volunteers for research purposes.
早期关于社交能力训练的研究往往聚焦于教授大学生“约会”技巧。这种研究重点有几个原因，包括为研究招募学生志愿者相对容易。大学是心理研究的中心，教师和研究生利用丰富的本科生志愿者资源开展研究。这些志愿者通常会获得小额报酬或在心理学课程中获得额外学分作为参与的回报。此外，由于许多大学生希望提升自己的社交能力，他们往往乐于参与此类研究。这些因素的结合确保了研究中志愿者资源的充足供应。

In Chapter 5, we delved into the distinction between acquisition issues and performance obstacles. This differentiation is particularly crucial in the context of social skills training. Many individuals have already acquired the necessary social skills for specific social scenarios but may struggle to employ them effectively due to emotional barriers like social anxiety, primarily constituting a performance hurdle. In such cases, treatment often focuses on addressing their emotional responses, potentially through methods like desensitization or assertiveness training.
在第五章中，我们深入探讨了获取问题与表现障碍之间的区别。这一区分在社交技能训练的背景下尤为重要。许多人虽然已经掌握了特定社交情境所需的必要社交技能，但可能因情感障碍（如社交焦虑）而难以有效运用这些技能，这主要构成表现障碍。在这种情况下，治疗通常聚焦于解决其情感反应，可能通过脱敏训练或 assertiveness training 等方法。

Conversely, some individuals might feel comfortable in social situations but lack knowledge of appropriate social behaviors or how to execute them, indicating an acquisition challenge initially, which may manifest as a performance issue later. For instance, during role-playing exercises, Sophia might adeptly demonstrate the proper way to introduce herself to a new classmate, but may experience anxiety inhibiting her in real-life situations (a performance problem). On the other hand, Harry might feel at ease
相反，有些人可能在社交场合中感到自在，但缺乏对适当社交行为的了解或执行能力，这表明最初存在学习障碍，可能在后续表现中以问题形式显现。例如，在角色扮演练习中，索菲亚可能能够熟练地向新同学介绍自己，但在现实生活中却可能因焦虑而无法正常表现（表现问题）。另一方面，哈里可能在社交场合中感到轻松自在，
socially but struggle with knowing what to say to his new classmate (an acquisition problem).
在社交方面表现良好，但与新同学交流时会感到困难（社交适应问题）。

While various methods exist for teaching social skills, many training programs incorporate the four-step process outlined in Structured Learning Therapy (Goldstein, Sprafkin, and Gershaw, 1976): modeling, role-playing, social reinforcement, and transfer training. For example, if Harry has a habit of taking snacks from other children without asking, our objective might be to encourage him to make a polite request, such as “Sophia, may I please have one of your cookies?” Initially, we might demonstrate this behavior to Harry and then engage in role-playing exercises where he practices asking politely. Throughout this process, we provide social reinforcement, such as praise or occasionally granting him a cookie, to reinforce his socially appropriate actions (sometimes referred to as prosocial behavior).
虽然存在多种教授社交技能的方法，但许多培训项目都采用了结构化学习疗法（Goldstein、Sprafkin 和 Gershaw，1976）中概述的四步流程：示范、角色扮演、社交强化和转移训练。例如，如果哈里有未经允许就拿其他孩子零食的习惯，我们的目标可能是鼓励他礼貌地提出请求，如“索菲亚，我可以请你给我一个饼干吗？”最初，我们可能会向哈里示范这种行为，然后进行角色扮演练习，让他练习礼貌地提出请求。在此过程中，我们通过社会强化（如表扬或偶尔给予饼干）来强化他的社会适宜行为（有时称为亲社会行为）。

Video Demonstration: Teaching social skills to children, particularly those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), through the use of video modeling has proven effective. This method involves having children watch videos of others demonstrating various social behaviors, and it has shown particular success in teaching play skills to ASD children. For further information on employing video modeling, the book “Video Modeling and Behavior Analysis” by Nikopoulos and Keenan (2006) is a valuable resource.
视频示范：通过视频建模教学法教授儿童社交技能，尤其是自闭症谱系障碍（ASD）儿童，已被证明是行之有效的方法。该方法要求儿童观看他人示范各种社交行为的视频，并在教授 ASD 儿童游戏技能方面取得了显著成效。如需进一步了解视频建模的应用，可参考 Nikopoulos 和 Keenan（2006）所著的《视频建模与行为分析》一书，该书是该领域的权威参考资料。

Behavioral Rehearsal: The combination of role-playing appropriate social behavior with anticipated outcomes is termed behavioral rehearsal. This technique involves practicing a series of scenarios, including the desired consequences. As the child improves in executing these behaviors, the therapist may introduce unexpected challenges to enhance the child’s ability
行为排练：将适当的社会行为与预期结果相结合的训练方法称为行为排练。该技术通过练习一系列情境，包括预期的后果，来帮助儿童掌握行为。随着儿童在执行这些行为上的进步，治疗师可能会引入意外的挑战，以提升儿童的应对能力。
to respond appropriately in a variety of situations. Once Harry has acquired the new social behavior and can proficiently demonstrate it in staged rehearsals, it is essential to facilitate the transfer of this behavior to real-life social contexts where he can apply it effectively.
在各种情况下做出适当的反应。一旦哈利掌握了新的社会行为，并能在模拟情境中熟练地展示出来，就必须帮助他将这种行为转移到现实生活中的社交场合，以便他能够有效地应用它。

Skill transfer, sometimes referred to as transfer training, is a concept used to describe the overall process of assisting Harry in executing specific behaviors in novel situations. This process can be likened to stimulus generalization, wherein the learned behavior is applied to similar contexts. Depending on the circumstances, additional intermediary steps may be necessary between some of these stages. It’s essential to break down the progression from inappropriate social conduct to more suitable behaviors into manageable steps. Both skill transfer and generalization play crucial roles in transitioning new behaviors from controlled therapeutic settings to real-world environments, as Harry learns to navigate everyday situations.
技能转移，有时也被称为转移训练，是一个用于描述帮助哈里在新型情境中执行特定行为的整体过程的概念。这一过程类似于刺激泛化，即所学行为被应用于类似情境。根据具体情况，某些阶段之间可能需要添加额外的中间步骤。将不适当的社会行为逐步转化为更合适的行为，这一过程需要分解为可管理的步骤。技能转移与泛化在将新行为从受控的治疗环境过渡到真实世界环境中发挥着关键作用，随着哈里学会应对日常情境，这一过程尤为重要。

In certain scenarios, verbal instructions and demonstrations may not effectively convey the desired behavior and its execution, especially concerning motor skills. Physical guidance of correct movements, termed assisted practice, can be beneficial. For example, if Harry’s parents are teaching him how to hit a softball with a bat, perhaps his mother would stand behind him, placing her hands over Harry’s, guiding him through the swinging motion as his father pitches the ball.
在某些情况下，口头指示和演示可能无法有效传达所需行为及其执行方式，尤其是在涉及运动技能时。通过物理引导正确动作的辅助练习可能更为有效。例如，如果哈利的父母正在教他用球棒击打垒球，或许他的母亲会站在他身后，将双手放在哈利的手上，引导他完成挥棒动作，同时父亲投掷球。

The ability to relax holds significance for everyone, aiding in improved concentration during tasks and aiding in calming down during moments of anger, fear, or emotional distress. Moreover, relaxation can mitigate the sensation of pain. Various methods of relaxation training have been taught across different domains, such as stress management, childbirth classes, sports psychology, and the treatment of anxiety disorders. Among these approaches, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) stands out as one of the most recognized behavioral methods. With PMR, individuals learn to
放松能力对每个人都至关重要，它有助于在任务中提升专注力，并在愤怒、恐惧或情绪困扰的时刻帮助平静下来。此外，放松还能缓解疼痛感。在不同领域，如压力管理、分娩课程、运动心理学以及焦虑障碍的治疗中，都教授了各种放松训练方法。在这些方法中，渐进式肌肉放松（PMR）作为最被认可的行为方法之一脱颖而出。通过 PMR，个体学会了
sequentially tense and then relax different muscle groups throughout their bodies, starting with individual muscles and eventually progressing to the entire body. This technique serves as a valuable self-regulation tool that proves beneficial to everyone at some point in their lives.
通过依次紧张然后放松身体不同部位的肌肉群，从单个肌肉开始，最终扩展到全身。这种技术作为一种有效的自我调节工具，对每个人在人生的某个阶段都具有积极作用。

Individuals can be taught to employ PMR to calm themselves during moments of distress or in anticipation of stressful situations. “Relaxation: A Comprehensive Manual for Adults, Children, and Children with Special Needs” (Cautela and Groden, 1978) serves as a valuable resource that outlines how to tailor PMR for children with special needs. When teaching PMR, involving students in leading group relaxation sessions for their peers can enhance their understanding and confidence in utilizing the technique. By verbalizing and demonstrating the process to the group, students tend to grasp the procedure more effectively and develop greater assurance in its application.
个人可以通过学习运用 PMR 来在压力时刻或预期压力情境前平复情绪。 《放松：成人、儿童及特殊需求儿童的综合指南》（Cautela 和 Groden，1978）是一本宝贵的参考资料，详细阐述了如何为特殊需求儿童定制 PMR 方案。在教授 PMR 时，让学生带领同龄人进行团体放松练习，可以增强他们对该技术的理解和应用信心。通过向小组成员口头解释并示范整个过程，学生通常能更有效地掌握操作步骤，并增强对该技术的应用信心。

There are numerous additional applications of Applied Behavior Analysis ( ABA ) that we could delve into, including its educational uses, which we will explore further in Chapter 8.
应用行为分析（ABA）还有许多其他应用领域，我们可以在后续章节中进一步探讨，其中包括其在教育领域的应用，我们将在第八章中对此进行更深入的探讨。