FIGURE 4.1 Vienna in 1529. Sultan Suleiman I’s attempted conquest of Vienna in 1529, the year before this panoramic map of the city was made, sent shockwaves across Europe. The building in the center of this detail view is St. Stephen’s Cathedral, which served as an informal headquarters for the defense of the city. (credit: modification of work “Panoramic view of Vienna during the first Turkish siege, 1529” by Vienna Museum/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
图 4.1 1529 年的维也纳。1529 年，也就是这幅维也纳全景地图绘制的前一年，苏丹苏莱曼一世试图征服维也纳，此举震惊了整个欧洲。这幅细节图的中心建筑是圣斯蒂芬大教堂，它曾作为维也纳城防的非正式总部。（来源：维也纳博物馆/维基共享资源，公共领域，作品“1529 年第一次土耳其围城期间维也纳全景”修改版）

4.1 A Connected Islamic World
4.1 互联互通的伊斯兰世界
4.2 The Ottoman Empire
4.2 奥斯曼帝国
4.3 The Safavid Empire
4.3 萨法维帝国

INTRODUCTION In 1526, the Ottoman armies of Sultan Suleiman “the Magnificent” defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs, setting the stage for a showdown with the Habsburgs, the rulers of Austria, at Vienna. In May 1529, Suleiman’s army of approximately 100,000 soldiers set out from the Black Sea through the spring rains for the culmination of Ottoman expansion into central Europe under his reign. Though somewhat weakened by the loss of equipment to heavier-than-expected rain, they reached the walls of Vienna in September and began the siege. Despite being greatly outnumbered, however, the Viennese defenders were able to repulse each of the Ottoman advances (Figure 4.1).
引言 1526 年，奥斯曼帝国苏丹苏莱曼大帝的军队在莫哈奇战役中击败了匈牙利人，为与奥地利统治者哈布斯堡王朝在维也纳的决战奠定了基础。1529 年 5 月，苏莱曼的军队约有 10 万名士兵从黑海出发，冒着春雨，准备在他的统治下将奥斯曼帝国的扩张推向中欧。虽然由于比预期更大的降雨导致装备损失，军队有所削弱，但他们还是在 9 月抵达了维也纳城下并开始围攻。尽管寡不敌众，维也纳守军还是击退了奥斯曼帝国的每次进攻（图 4.1）。

Eventually, Suleiman was forced to admit defeat and retreat to Constantinople, the former capital of the Byzantine Empire that was also commonly referred to as Istanbul (Greek for “to the city”). Although the 1529 siege of Vienna was a failure for the Ottomans, their bold move greatly alarmed kingdoms across Europe. It also led Suleiman to direct his attention east toward Iran and control of Mesopotamia, areas he thought more important for the security of his existing territory. By the end of his life in 1566, the Ottoman Empire was near
最终，苏莱曼被迫承认失败，撤退至君士坦丁堡，这座曾经的拜占庭帝国首都，也常被称为伊斯坦布尔（希腊语意为“前往城市”）。尽管1529年围攻维也纳对奥斯曼帝国来说以失败告终，但他们的大胆举动却极大地震惊了欧洲各国。这也促使苏莱曼将注意力转向东方的伊朗和美索不达米亚，他认为这些地区对于其现有领土的安全更为重要。到1566年他去世时，奥斯曼帝国已接近
the height of its power and territorial control. However, it was not the only large Muslim state to dominate Eurasia. The Safavids in Iran also expanded Islamic military, political, and economic power in the region we call the Middle East.
其权力和领土控制达到了顶峰。然而，它并非唯一一个主宰欧亚大陆的大型穆斯林国家。伊朗的萨法维王朝也扩张了我们称之为中东地区的伊斯兰军事、政治和经济实力。

FIGURE 4.2 Timeline: The Islamic World. (credit “1300”: modification of work “Osman Gazi (I)” by Seyid Lockman/ Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1529”: modification of work “Panoramic view of Vienna during the first Turkish siege, 1529” by Vienna Museum/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1533”: modification of work “Portrait of Roxelana, Khourrem” by Jak Amran Collection, Istanbul/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1577” modification of work “Istambul observatory in 1577” by Cahiers de Science et Vie No114/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1606” modification of work “Armenian Frescoes” by David Stanley/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)
图 4.2 时间线：伊斯兰世界。（来源“1300”：修改自 Seyid Lockman/Wikimedia Commons 作品“Osman Gazi (I)”，公共领域；来源“1529”：修改自维也纳博物馆/Wikimedia Commons 作品“1529 年土耳其第一次围攻期间的维也纳全景”，公共领域；来源“1533”：修改自 Jak Amran Collection, Istanbul/Wikimedia Commons 作品“Roxelana, Khourrem 的肖像”，公共领域；来源“1577”修改自 Cahiers de Science et Vie No114/Wikimedia Commons 作品“1577 年的伊斯坦布尔天文台”，公共领域；来源“1606”修改自 David Stanley/Flickr 作品“亚美尼亚壁画”，CC BY 2.0）

FIGURE 4.3 Locator Map: The Islamic World. (credit: modification of work “World map blank shorelines” by Maciej Jaros/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
图 4.3 定位图：伊斯兰世界。（来源：Maciej Jaros 作品“世界地图空白海岸线”修改版/维基共享资源，公共领域）

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
读完本节后，您将能够：

Beginning with its emergence during the life of the prophet Muhammad at the beginning of the seventh century CE, the religion of Islam spread far and wide for several centuries and led to the establishment of several caliphates, areas under the control of Muslim rulers called caliphs. Early expansion occurred largely through conquests, such as those undertaken by the Prophet himself, the Rashidun Caliphate (the name given to the rule of the four caliphs who succeeded Muhammad), and the Umayyad Caliphate, which emerged decades after Muhammad’s death and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty based in Syria. These conquests expanded the ummah, or the community of Muslims, into Iran, Spain, and the vast lands in between.
伊斯兰教起源于公元七世纪初先知穆罕默德在世期间，此后数个世纪中广泛传播，并由此建立了多个哈里发国，这些地区由被称为哈里发的穆斯林统治者控制。早期的扩张主要通过征服进行，例如先知本人的征服、正统哈里发国（继承穆罕默德统治的四位哈里发的统治名称）以及穆罕默德死后数十年出现的倭马亚哈里发国，后者由位于叙利亚的倭马亚王朝统治。这些征服将穆斯林社群（乌玛）扩展到伊朗、西班牙以及其间的广大地区。

In 750, the Umayyad Caliphate succumbed to rebellion and gave way to the Abbasid Caliphate. This dynastic transformation not only led to the elevation of Baghdad as the capital of the Abbasid world, but it also brought with it a larger political division in the Islamic world. The Umayyads in Spain refused to recognize the new Abbasid rulers and eventually established their own rival caliphate. In the centuries that followed, other parts of the Islamic world did the same. By the year 1000, there were three rival caliphates: the Sunni Abbasids ruling from Baghdad, the Shi’ite Fatimids ruling from Cairo, and a rival Sunni caliphate, the Umayyads, ruling from Cordoba in Spain.
公元750年，倭马亚哈里发国在叛乱中屈服，被阿拔斯哈里发国取代。这次王朝更迭不仅使巴格达成为阿拔斯王朝的首都，也带来了伊斯兰世界更大的政治分裂。西班牙的倭马亚王朝拒绝承认新的阿拔斯王朝统治者，并最终建立了自己的哈里发国。在接下来的几个世纪里，伊斯兰世界的其他地区也纷纷效仿。到公元1000年，已经出现了三个相互竞争的哈里发国：统治巴格达的逊尼派阿拔斯王朝，统治开罗的什叶派法蒂玛王朝，以及统治西班牙科尔多瓦的逊尼派哈里发倭马亚王朝。

Over the next few centuries, a combination of trade and conquest expanded the ummah into West Africa and India. The arrival of the Mongols in the thirteenth century resulted in increased expansion but also the end of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258. During the following few hundred years, the rise of the Ottoman Empire brought a larger Islamic presence to southeastern Europe, and the Safavids came to power in Iran. (The land
在接下来的几个世纪里，贸易与征服的结合将乌玛扩张到了西非和印度。13世纪蒙古人的到来，不仅进一步扩张了乌玛的势力，也导致了阿拔斯王朝于1258年的覆灭。在接下来的几百年里，奥斯曼帝国的崛起将伊斯兰教的影响扩展到了东南欧，萨法维王朝则在伊朗掌权。（土地