5.1 General Knowledge of the Sound System 【重点术语】
5.1 音响系统常识 【重点术语】

1. Phonetics
1. 语音学

(1) The major branches of phonetics
（1）语音学的主要分支

① Articulatory phonetics: it is a branch of phonetics which is the study of the production of speech sounds.
（1）发音语音学：它是语音学的一个分支，是研究语音产生的学科。

② Auditory phonetics: it is a branch of phonetics which studies the sounds from the hearer's point of view, that is, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
（2） 听觉语音学：它是语音学的一个分支，从听者的角度研究声音，即听者如何感知声音。

③ Acoustic phonetics: it is a branch of phonetics which studies the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.
（3） 声学语音学：它是语音学的一个分支，研究语音中产生的声音的物理特性。

(2) Articulatory Phonetics
（2） 发音语音学

① vowel: it is a sound generally produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
（1）元音：是一般无障碍发出的声音，因此无法感觉到湍流或空气完全停止。

② consonant: it is a sound in spoken language that is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract. English consonants can be classified from two basic aspects: the manner and the place of articulation.
（2）辅音：是口语中通过收缩或阻塞声道而产生的声音。英语辅音可以从两个基本方面进行分类：发音方式和位置。

③ consonant cluster: it is a group of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel between them. It produces more than one consonant sound, such as / sp/ in sport, / st/ in student, / sks/ in desks.
（3）辅音簇：是一组辅音一起出现在一个音节中，它们之间没有元音。它产生不止一种辅音，例如运动中的 / sp/，学生中的 / st/，桌子中的 / sks/。

④ digraph: it refers to a group of two or more symbols which actually represent one sound, such as“ph”/f/ in photo.
（4）有向字母：指一组两个或多个符号，实际上代表一个声音，如照片中的“ph”/f/。

⑤ coarticulation: it refers to the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.
（5）共发音：是指当声音显示出其邻居的影响时，同时或重叠发音的过程。

2. Phonology
2. 音韵学

(1) phone: it is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.
（1）电话：是语音研究的基本单位，是人类言语器官所能发出的最小音段。

(2) phoneme: it is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
（2）音素：是语音学研究的基本单位，是语音特征的抽象集合，可以区分意义。

(3) allophone: it is the different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment.
（3）同位异音：是同一音素在不同语音环境下的不同实现。

(4) minimal pairs: two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment.
（4）最小对：两种不同的形式除了一个声音片段外，在各个方面都是相同的。

(5) assimilation rule: the rule that assimilates one sound to another by“copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar is called assimilation rule.
（5）同化规则：通过“复制”顺序音素的特征，使两个音相似，将一种声音同化为另一种声音的规则称为同化规则。

(6) suprasegmental features
（6）超节段特征

① syllable: it is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
（1）音节：它是语音中的一个单位，通常比一个声音长，比整个单词小。

② stress: it refers to the amount of energy with which a syllable is spoken. Stress is always related with pitch, i. e., more stress, higher pitch. There are two types of sentence stress. Sense stress shows meaning and logical stress shows contrast.
（2）重音：指一个音节说话时所用的能量。重音总是与音高有关，即更大的压力，更高的音调。句子重音有两种类型。感觉重音显示意义，逻辑重音显示对比。

③ intonation: it refers to the rise and fall of pitch in an utterance. There are three functions of intonation:it indicates grammatical meaning and the speaker's attitude, and changes meaning.
（3）语调：指话语中音高的升降。语调有三种作用：表示语法意义和说话者的态度，改变意义。

④ rhythm: it refers to the regularity of stress. Rhythm in English is a stress-timed rhythm.
（4）节奏：指压力的规律性。英语中的节奏是一种重音定时的节奏。

⑤ pitch: it is produced by frequency of vibration of the vocal cords.
（5）音高：由声带振动频率产生。

5.2 Factors influencing teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.2 影响教学发音的因素 【简答论述】

There are people who claim that students do not need to learn pronunciation because pronunciation will take care of itself as students develop overall language ability. However, there are people who assert that failure in pronunciation is a hindrance to language learning. From my perspective, whether pronunciation needs special attention in language teaching depends on many factors.
有人声称学生不需要学习发音，因为随着学生发展整体语言能力，发音会自行解决。然而，也有人断言，发音失败是语言学习的障碍。在我看来，语言教学中是否需要特别注意发音取决于许多因素。

1. The difference between L1 and L2. Leaners whose native language has similar sounds to English are less likely to have problems with pronunciation than those whose native language has very different sounds from English.
1. L1 和 L2 的区别。母语与英语发音相似的学习者比母语与英语发音截然不同的人更不可能出现发音问题。

2. Exposure to English. Learners who have more exposure to English need less focus on pronunciation than those who only learn English in the class.
2. 接触英语。与只在课堂上学习英语的学习者相比，接触英语较多的学习者需要更少关注发音。

3. Age. Adult learners need more focus on pronunciation because they are more likely to substitute English sounds with sounds from their native language.
3. 年龄。成人学习者需要更多地关注发音，因为他们更有可能用母语的声音代替英语发音。

4. The innate phonetic ability. Owing to biological and physiological difference, different students have different phonetic ability. Some students are more sensitive to and better at imitating sounds than other students.
4、与生俱来的语音能力。由于生理和生理差异，不同的学生具有不同的语音能力。有些学生比其他学生对声音更敏感，更擅长模仿声音。

5. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation. For example, students who will be teachers ofEnglish may be more concerned with pronunciation than students of science and technology.
5. 对良好发音的动机和关注。例如，将要成为英语教师的学生可能比科学和技术专业的学生更关心发音。

5.3 Reasons for teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.3 教发音的原因 【简答论述】

1. Role of pronunciation in communication
1. 发音在交流中的作用

(1) To achieve effective communication, good pronunciation is always desired and plays an important role.
（1）要实现有效的沟通，良好的发音总是需要的，并且起着重要作用。

(2) Consistent mispronunciation of a range of phonemes can be extremely harmful to successful communication.
（2） 一系列音素的一致错误发音可能对成功的交流极为有害。

2. Reasons to teach pronunciation in EFL teaching
2. 在 EFL 教学中教授发音的原因

(1) To improve intelligibility in communication can be considered as one major reason. It is known that the form of a language item falls into the written and spoken forms. In order to meet the communicative challenges at present, it is important to focus on both the two forms. Thus, being an essential component of the spoken form of a certain language, good pronunciation is of no doubt important to make us more intelligible when orally communicating with each other.
（1） 提高交流的清晰度可以被认为是一个主要原因。众所周知，语言项目的形式分为书面形式和口头形式。为了应对当前的交际挑战，重要的是要同时关注这两种形式。因此，作为某种语言口语形式的重要组成部分，良好的发音对于使我们在彼此口头交流时更容易理解无疑很重要。

(2) To help students leave a good impression in certain situations such as interviews with English native speakers or situations in which English is wholly or partially used as a medium.
（2） 帮助学生在特定情况下留下良好的印象，例如与英语母语人士的面谈或全部或部分使用英语作为媒介的情况。

(3) To help students in other aspects of English learning. Learning pronunciation well helps improve the learning of written English. Teaching pronunciation can make students more aware of the rules and the relationship between pronunciation and spelling so that they can easily memorize the spellings of many words.
（3） 在英语学习的其他方面帮助学生。学习好发音有助于提高书面英语的学习水平。发音教学可以让学生更加了解发音和拼写的规则和关系，从而轻松记住许多单词的拼写。

(4) To solve current problems of promunciation teaching. Many students treat pronunciation as less important in English learning. Besides, many English teachers do not put much emphasis on pronunciation teaching not because they are not aware of its importance and necessity, but because they themselves are lack of confidence in teaching“correct” and“appropriate” or“accepted” pronunciation.
（4）解决目前发音教学中存在的问题。许多学生认为发音在英语学习中不那么重要。此外，许多英语教师不太重视发音教学，不是因为他们没有意识到其重要性和必要性，而是因为他们自己对教授“正确”和“适当”或“被接受”的发音缺乏信心。

5.4 Goals of teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.4 发音教学目标

The aim of pronunciation teaching must be that the students can produce English speech which is intelligible in the areas where they will use it. However, we'd better not require the students to acquire native-like pronunciation.
发音教学的目的必须是学生能够在他们将要使用的领域发出易于理解的英语语音。但是，我们最好不要要求学生获得类似母语的发音。

1. Reasons why most learners of English cannot acquire native-like English pronunciation.
1. 大多数英语学习者无法获得类似母语的英语发音的原因。

(1) Much research has been done to test a hypothesis called the Critical Period Hypothesis, which states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age, then due to changes, it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.
（1） 已经进行了大量研究来检验一种称为“关键期假说”的假说，该假说指出，如果人类在一定年龄之前没有学习一门外语，那么由于变化，就不可能像母语人士一样学习外语。

(2) The amount of exposure to English is another factor that determines if the students can acquire native-like English promunciation. The more exposure students have to the authentic English, the more progress they will make in pronunciation.
（2） 接触英语的多少是决定学生能否获得类似母语的英语发音的另一个因素。学生接触地道英语的次数越多，他们的发音进步就越大。

(3) Owing to biological and physiological difference, different students have different phonetic ability.Some students are more sensitive to and better at imitating sounds than other students.
（3）由于生理和生理差异，不同学生的语音能力不同。有些学生比其他学生对声音更敏感，更擅长模仿声音。

2. Our realistic goals of teaching pronunciation can be listed as three major points.
2、我们教发音的现实目标可以列为三大点。

(1) Consistency. Students' pronunciation should be smooth and natural.
（1）一致性。学生的发音要流畅自然。

(2) Intelligibility. The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners, both segmentally and prosodically.
（2）可理解性。发音应该是听众可以理解的，无论是分段还是前奏。

(3) Communicative efficiency. The pronunciation should help convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker.
（3）沟通效率。发音应该有助于传达说话者的意思。

5.5 Principles of teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.5 发音教学原则 【简答论述】

1. Teaching pronunciation through teacher modeling and students imitating. With teacher modeling and students imitating, students can practice the pronunciation of individual sounds in isolation, which is necessary. However, it is not sufficient in developing students’ phonological competence.
1、通过教师建模和学生模仿来教授发音。通过教师建模和学生模仿，学生可以单独练习单个声音的发音，这是必要的。然而，这还不足以培养学生的语音能力。

2. Teaching pronunciation in the stream of speech and in context. We know that a meaningful stream of speech is made up of three elements: sound, rhythm and intonation. As we know, the same words said with different rhythms and intonations will produce different meanings. Sometimes stress and intonation matter more than the individual sounds, so it is of great significance to teach pronunciation in context.
2. 在语音流和上下文中教授发音。我们知道，有意义的言语流由三个要素组成：声音、节奏和语调。众所周知，同样的话，用不同的节奏和语调说，会产生不同的含义。有时重音和语调比单个声音更重要，因此在上下文中教授发音具有重要意义。

3. Pronunciation teaching should usually involve these basic steps: presentation, practice and consolidation, evaluation.
3. 发音教学通常应包括以下基本步骤：演示、练习和巩固、评估。

4. Practice should be stressed. To make it, teachers should design a great variety of appropriate activities for practice.
4. 应强调实践。为了做到这一点，教师应该设计各种适当的练习活动。

5. Teachers should carefully decide what phonological item needs to be focused on.
5. 教师应仔细决定需要关注的语音项目。

6. Pronunciation teaching should not occupy too much time in a lesson and teachers can decide when to include pronunciation teaching into lesson sequences.
6. 发音教学不应在一节课中占用太多时间，教师可以决定何时将发音教学纳入课程序列。

7. Pronunciation teaching should be integrated with teaching of other areas of English language.
7. 发音教学应与英语其他领域的教学相结合。

8. It is not advised to set too high a goal of pronunciation teaching as native-like pronunciation. The realistic goals can be consistency, intelligibility, and communicative efficiency.
8. 不建议将发音教学目标定得太高，即类母语发音。现实的目标可以是一致性、可理解性和沟通效率。

【助记】

5.6 Techniques of teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.6 发音教学技巧 【简答论述】

1. 【了解】 The order of presentation
1. 【了解】 呈现顺序

(1) With regard to the order of presentation, there are usually two ways. The older way starts with individual sounds, paying little attention to stress and intonation, while the newer way treats sounds at a later stage in the presentation, with the earlier units dealing with intonation and stress. No one is rather preferred. Teachers should bear in mind that at no stage should learners lose sight of the overall picture.They can't deal successfully with sound segment without the stream of speech.
（1）关于呈现顺序，通常有两种方式。旧的方式从单个声音开始，很少关注重音和语调，而新的方式则在演示的后期阶段处理声音，早期的单元处理语调和重音。没有人是更受欢迎的。教师应牢记，在任何阶段，学习者都不应忽视全局。如果没有语音流，他们就无法成功处理声音片段。

(2) perception and production 【重点术语】
（2）感知与生产【重点术语】

implicit method(perception)
隐式方法（感知）

exposure → imitation → speech training → practical phonetics
接触→模仿→语音训练→实用语音学

explicit method(production)
显式方法（生产）

practical phonetics → speech training →speech training → exposure
实用语音学→语音训练→言语训练→暴露

A lengthy period of listening to authentic speech samples may be a better introduction to the sound system than insistence on imitating sounds out of context.
长时间聆听真实的语音样本可能比坚持断章取义地模仿声音更能介绍音响系统。

There is no firmly established knowledge about the best balance between perception and production. Common sense would seem to suggest that we cannot produce a sound feature which we can't perceive. On the other hand, we do not automatically produce all the sounds that we are able to .perceive. However, there is no doubt that learners need more opportunities to absorb the sound patterns of a new language through observation than in the past.
关于感知和生产之间的最佳平衡，没有牢固的知识。常识似乎表明，我们无法产生我们无法感知的声音特征。另一方面，我们不会自动产生我们能够感知的所有声音。然而，毫无疑问，学习者需要比过去更多的机会通过观察来吸收新语言的声音模式。

2. Teaching a sound
2. 教声音

(1) 【了解】 The order that the teacher would teach and practice a difficult sound
（1） 【了解】 老师教授和练习困难声音的顺序

Say a sound alone - - - Repeat the sound in chorus - - - Repeat the sound individually - - - Explain how to make the sound - - - Say the sound in a word - - - Contrast it with other sounds - - - Say the sound in a meaningful context
单独说一个声音 - - - 在合唱中重复声音 - - - 单独重复声音 - - - 解释如何发出声音 - - - 用一个词说出声音 - - - 将其与其他声音进行对比 - - - 在有意义的上下文中说出声音

If the students can produce the sound correctly after the teacher's modeling, it is not necessary to explain“How”.
如果学生在老师的建模后能够正确地发出声音，就不用解释“如何”了。

“Write words on the board” unnecessary
“在黑板上写字”不必要

>“Contrast it with other sound” as a later step
>“与其他声音对比”作为后面的步骤

(2)【简答论述】 Techniques of teaching a sound
（2）【简答论述】 Techniques of teaching a sound

① Presenting phonological items
（1） 呈现语音项目

Three stages:
三个阶段：

> Stage 1: leading-in: it helps to draw students’ attention to the phonological items that are to be taught and stimulate their motivation of learning.
> 第一阶段：引导：有助于将学生的注意力吸引到将要教授的语音项目上，激发他们的学习动机。

Stage 2: demonstration: it enables students to be aware of the correct pronunciation.
第二阶段：示范：让学生知道正确的发音。

Stage 3: explanation: it enhances students' mastery of the new phonological items.
第三阶段：解释：提高学生对新语音项目的掌握。

Three ways to present phonological items:
语音项目的三种呈现方式：

First, using his or her own voice or play the tape recorder to show the new sounds.
首先，使用他或她自己的声音或播放录音机来显示新的声音。

Second, using his or her gestures, such as his or her hand and arm movements to show stress and intonation patterns.
其次，使用他或她的手势，例如他或她的手和手臂动作来显示重音和语调模式。

Third, using the blackboard to present the phonological items as well.
第三，使用黑板来呈现语音项目。

② Practicing phonological items
（2） 练习语音项目

Practice is of no doubt another important stage, or even more important. In order to solve numerous problems that students may encounter in learning pronunciation, we can design effective practice of phonological items which falls into two parts:
实践无疑是另一个重要阶段，甚至更重要。为了解决学生在学习发音中可能遇到的众多问题，我们可以设计语音项目的有效练习，分为两部分：

Part 1 Perception practice: it is aimed at developing students’ ability of identifying and distinguishing between different sounds. The core to perception practice is repeated exposure to the new phonological items that are to be drilled.
第一部分 感知练习：旨在培养学生识别和区分不同声音的能力。感知练习的核心是反复接触要钻探的新语音项目。

1) The same or different. The teacher can read pairs of words and then he or she can ask students to tell whether the words are same or different.
1）相同或不同。老师可以阅读成对的单词，然后他或她可以要求学生分辨这些单词是相同还是不同。

2) Using minimal pairs. The teacher can read either one of the words containing minimal pairs, such as sheep (ship), and then make students recognize the exact word which was read.
2） 使用最少的对。教师可以阅读包含最小对的单词之一，例如 sheep （ship），然后让学生认出所读的确切单词。

3) Sorting out the different sound or word. The teacher reads a group of words, among which there is one different sound or word. And students are asked to sort out the different sound or word as quickly as they can.
3）整理不同的声音或单词。老师读一组单词，其中有一个不同的声音或单词。学生被要求尽快整理出不同的声音或单词。

4) Which order. The teacher can also provide students with a list of words he or she is about to read and then reads the words randomly. Students are required to mark the listed words with the numbers 1,2,3…to represent the order in which those words were read.
4）哪个顺序。老师还可以给学生一个他或她将要阅读的单词列表，然后随机阅读单词。学生必须用数字 1、2、3 标记列出的单词......来表示这些单词的阅读顺序。

5) Blank filling. The teacher gives each student a worksheet with a list of incomplete words, such as“ ight”, “ ight”, “ ight”... Then he or she reads“fight”, “light”, “night”... Students have to be very concentrated so as to distinguish between them.
5）空白填充。老师给每个学生一张工作表，上面列出了不完整的单词，例如“ight”、“ight”、“ight”......然后他或她读“战斗”、“光”、“夜”......学生必须非常集中注意力，以便区分他们。

Part 2 Production practice: it facilitates the development of EFL learners’ ability of producing English sounds, ranging from individual phonemes to utterances. It will help students produce correct, distinct and understandable sounds and thus enables them to communicate more effectively.
第二部分 制作实践：它促进了英语学习者产生英语发音的能力的发展，从单个音素到话语。它将帮助学生产生正确、独特和易于理解的声音，从而使他们能够更有效地进行交流。

1) Imitation and repetition. They are two tradition and effective activities, though they are usually mechanical. For example, using tongue twister can help students master several difficult consonants.
1）模仿和重复。它们是两种传统且有效的活动，尽管它们通常是机械的。例如，使用绕口令可以帮助学生掌握几个困难的辅音。

2) Blank-filling. The teacher gives students several sentences which need to be filled. Then students are asked to fill in the blanks with meaningful and suitable words containing certain consonants or vowels,such as /ʒ/. After filling the blanks, the teacher can request students to read out the complete sentences.
2）填空。老师给学生几个需要填写的句子。然后要求学生用包含某些辅音或元音的有意义且合适的单词填充空白，例如 /ʒ/。填空后，老师可以要求学生读出完整的句子。

3) Questioning and answering. The teacher raises questions and students are to answer the questions by individual or in chorus. For example, the teacher can hold a pen and ask students“What is this? Is this a/pæn/?” Then, students may answer“No, it isn't a pan, it's a pen”.
3）问答。老师提出问题，学生单独或合唱回答问题。例如，老师可以拿着笔问学生“这是什么？这是 a/pæn/ 吗？然后，学生可能会回答“不，这不是平底锅，而是笔”。

4) Chanting. Individual sounds and suprasegmental features can be improved through chanting practice.For example, the teacher can present the following chant as a model to help students practice the sound/e/: Good better best, never let it rest. Till good is better, and better is best. What's more, students can make up their own chants following the model.
4）念诵。个人声音和超节段特征可以通过诵经练习得到改善。例如，老师可以将以下圣歌作为模型，帮助学生练习声音/e/：好更好最好，永远不要让它休息。直到好更好，更好就是最好。更重要的是，学生可以按照模型编造自己的口号。

5) Back-chaining technique. It is a very useful technique for helping students practice pronunciation.When it is used, the students practice saying a sentence in sections, starting with the end of the sentence and gradually working backwards to the beginning. For example, the teacher can teach“Give it to him”by“him/ to him/ it to him/ Give it to him”.
5）反链技术。这是帮助学生练习发音的非常有用的技巧。使用时，学生练习分段说句子，从句子的结尾开始，逐渐倒推到开头。例如，老师可以教“给他”通过“他/给他/给他/给他”。

3. 【简答论述】 Teaching suprasegmental features
3. 【简答论述】 超分段特色教学

(1) Teaching rhythm
（1）教学节奏

Rhythm refers to the regularity of stress. Teaching rhythm by getting students to find the stressed syllables first, then read the text with the right rhythm. Following her model, the students can practice rhythm by following the teacher's gestures.
节奏是指压力的规律性。通过让学生先找到重读音节，然后以正确的节奏阅读文本来教授节奏。按照她的榜样，学生可以通过跟随老师的手势来练习节奏。

(2) Teaching intonation
（2）教学语调

Intonation refers to the rise and fall pitch in an utterance. As a saying goes, phonemes make up the body, while intonation is the soul of English. There are basically two functions of intonation: It indicates grammatical meaning in much the same way as punctuation does, and it can indicate the speaker's attitude.
语调是指话语中的上升和下降音高。俗话说，音素构成了身体，而语调是英语的灵魂。语调基本上有两个功能：它以与标点符号大致相同的方式表示语法含义，并且可以表明说话者的态度。

To teach intonation in a meaningful way, we could choose from the following ways.
为了以有意义的方式教授语调，我们可以从以下方式中进行选择。

Use realia 【重点术语】 to set up a situation that would illustrate the difference in attitude. For example, the teacher gives each student a small coin and asks them to respond with“thank you”, at the same time drawing on the blackboard the intonation pattern. She then gives one of the students a large coin and encourages him to produce“thank you” on a slightly higher pitch. The differences in pitch are illustrated on the board.
使用 realia 【重点术语】来设置一个可以说明态度差异的情况。例如，老师给每个学生一个小硬币，让他们回答“谢谢”，同时在黑板上画出语调图案。然后她给了其中一名学生一枚大硬币，并鼓励他用稍高的音调说“谢谢”。板上说明了音高的差异。

For beginners, creating roles is a good way of overcoming shyness or embarrassment. The student can adopt a role and act out a short sketch,e. g. Mr. Happy & Mr. Grumpy say the word hello. For more advanced students,a more sophisticated contrast can be set up.
对于初学者来说，创造角色是克服害羞或尴尬的好方法。学生可以扮演一个角色并表演一个简短的草图，例如，快乐先生和脾气暴躁先生说“你好”这个词。对于更高级的学生，可以设置更复杂的对比度。

(3) Teaching stress
（3）教学压力

There are two kinds of stress that are important to achieving good pronunciation. The first one is word-level stress, while the second one is phrase-level or sentence-level stress. Stress and intonation can also change meaning.
有两种重音对于实现良好的发音很重要。第一个是单词级重音，第二个是短语级或句子级重音。重音和语调也可以改变含义。

Below are three ways to show the stress patterns of words, phrases and sentences.
以下是显示单词、短语和句子的重音模式的三种方法。

Firstly, use gestures. The teacher can indicate the stress by clapping hands or using arm movements as if conducting music.
首先，使用手势。老师可以通过拍手或使用手臂动作来表示压力，就像指挥音乐一样。

Secondly, use the voice. The teacher can raise the voice to indicate stress.
其次，使用声音。老师可以提高声音来表示压力。

Thirdly, use the blackboard. The teacher can highlight the stress parts by underlining them or writing them with colored chalks or in different size.
第三，使用黑板。老师可以通过下划线或用彩色粉笔或不同大小书写来突出重音部分。

5.7 Suggestions on teaching pronunciation 【简答论述】
5.7 发音教学建议 【简答论述】

First and foremost, the main criteria for good pronunciation are consistency, intelligibility , and communicative efficiency.
首先，良好发音的主要标准是一致性、清晰度和交际效率。

Second, use individual, pair, group and whole class work to create a pleasant, relaxing, and dynamic classroom.
其次，利用个人、结对、小组和全班作业，营造一个愉快、轻松、充满活力的课堂。

Third, vary the criteria of“good” in pronunciation practice to give students confidence.
第三，在发音练习中改变“好”的标准，给学生信心。

Forth, bring interests and variety to the practice of pronunciation. For example, asking students to practice an expression in different tones to show anger, happiness, etc.
第四，为发音练习带来趣味性和多样性。例如，要求学生练习不同语气的表达方式，以表达愤怒、快乐等。

Last but not least, do not rely on explanation. Make full use of demonstrations.
最后但并非最不重要的一点是，不要依赖解释。充分利用演示。

5.8 Some points about pronunciation in the New Curriculum Standard.【素材积累】
5.8 新课程标准中关于发音的几点 【素材积累】

Phonetic knowledge
语音知识

1. Content requirements
1. 内容要求

Phonetics and semantics are inseparable, and language relies on phonetics to realize its social communication functions. English phonetics includes stress, intonation, rhythm, pause, linking,
语音和语义密不可分，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交流功能。英语语音包括重音、语调、节奏、停顿、链接、

explosion, assimilation, etc. Through the phonetic changes, the speaker expresses meaning and opinions and conveys attitudes, intentions, emotions, and so on.
爆炸、同化等。通过语音变化，说话者表达了意义和观点，并传达了态度、意图、情感等。

In senior high school, the learning of phonetic knowledge should focus on the learning of the meaning-expressing function of phonetics in meaningful contexts so that students gradually learn how to use phonetic knowledge to achieve communication purposes effectively.
在高中阶段，语音知识的学习应侧重于在有意义的语境中学习语音的意义表达功能，使学生逐步学会如何运用语音知识有效地达到交流目的。

2. Teaching suggestions
2. 教学建议

Teachers can design various phonetic practice activities to guide students to further experience,perceive, and imitate English pronunciation, with special attention paid to pause, linking, explosion,rhythm, etc., to help students form a good English pronunciation and a sense of language, and form a certain phonetic awareness through learning relevant phonetic knowledge.
教师可以设计各种语音练习活动，引导学生进一步体验、感知和模仿英语发音，特别注意停顿、连动、爆音、节奏等，帮助学生形成良好的英语发音和语言感，通过学习相关的语音知识，形成一定的语音意识。

At the same time, teachers should also provide abundant phonetics practice activities to help students learn to understand the attitudes, intentions, and emotions of the speakers with the help of phonetic knowledge, and express meaning, intentions, opinions, and attitudes that they wish to convey.
同时，教师还应该提供丰富的语音练习活动，帮助学生借助语音知识学会理解说话者的态度、意图和情感，表达他们希望传达的意思、意图、观点和态度。

The study of phonetic knowledge and the cultivation of phonetic ability should be carried out in contexts.
语音知识的学习和语音能力的培养，要在情境中进行。

Teachers should organize abundant and varied phonetics practice activities according to the characteristics of senior high school students. In the teaching of the required courses during Grade 1,teachers should make full use of listening practice, oral imitation, and reading aloud practice to help students form a sense of language and improve their self-confidence and fluency in expression. In the teaching of the required elective courses and the elective courses, teachers should try to improve the accuracy and fluency of students’ pronunciation through activities such as English poem reading, drama performances, and film dubbing.
教师要根据高三学生的特点，组织丰富多样的语音练习活动。在一年级必修课的教学中，教师应充分利用听力练习、口语模仿、朗读练习等方式，帮助学生形成语言意识，提高学生的自信心和表达流畅性。在必修选修课和选修课的教学中，教师应通过英语诗歌朗诵、戏剧表演、电影配音等活动，尽量提高学生发音的准确性和流畅性。

Chapter 6 The Teaching and Learning of Vocabulary
第六章 词汇的教与学

【章前导读】

本章主要是研究要怎么样才能教好学生的词汇，主要包括以下几个部分：

第一部分，词汇相关知识。主要掌握术语即可。

第二部分，教词汇的理由。

第三部分，教词汇的目标。

第四部分，教词汇的原则。

第五部分，教词汇的活动。

第六部分，学生词汇学习。

第七部分，链接高中英语新课标。

本章重点掌握目标、原则和活动、学生词汇学习策略和如何扩大学生词汇。考查方向多为术语和简答题。

6.1 General knowledge of vocabulary【重点术语】
6.1 词汇常识 【重点术语】

Knowing a word involves knowing its meaning, its form and its use.
认识一个词涉及了解它的含义、形式和用法。

For words and their meanings, a student must know not only what it refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning.
对于单词及其含义，学生不仅必须知道它指的是什么，还必须知道将其与相关含义的单词分开的界限在哪里。

For words and their forms, this aspect involves the underlying form of a word and the derivates that can be made from it.
对于单词及其形式，这方面涉及单词的基本形式以及可以从中构成的派生词。

For words and their use, students may use a sentence which is not only correct in form, but also so in style, register, etc.
对于单词及其使用，学生可以使用一个句子，不仅在形式上正确，而且在风格、语域等方面也正确。

1. Words and Their Meanings
1. 词语及其含义

(1) Conceptual meaning: it makes up the central part of meaning. It is“denotative” in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing is denotes, or refers to.
（1）概念意义：构成意义的核心部分。它是“外延性的”，因为它关注一个词与被表示或指代的事物之间的关系。

(2) Affective meaning: it means the properties of the entity a word denotes and refers to some additional,especially emotive, meaning.
（2）情感意义：它是指一个词所表示的实体的属性，指的是一些额外的，特别是情感的意义。

(3) Sense relations
（3）感官关系

① Synonymy: it is the technical name for the sameness relation. But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are context dependent.
（1）同义词：是相同关系的技术名称。但完全同义词很少见。所谓的同义词是上下文依赖的。

② Antonymy: it refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.
（2）Antonymy：指意义的对立面。含义相反的词称为反义词。

Gradable antonymy: it is the sense relation between two antonyms which differ in terms of degree,such as good & bad, big & small.
可分级反义词：它是两个反义词之间的意义关系，它们在程度上有所不同，例如好与坏、大与小。

Complementary antonymy: it is the sense relation between the two antonyms which are complementary to each other, such as dead & alive, pass & fail.
互补反义词：是两个反义词之间的意义关系，相互互补，例如死与活、通过与失败。

Converse antonymy: it is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy & sell, husband & wife.
反义词：它是一种特殊类型的反义词，因为一对的成员不构成正负对立，例如买卖、丈夫和妻子。

③ Polysemy: it refers to the fact that the same one word may have several different but closely related meanings, e. g. head of a person, head of a pin, head of an organization.
（3）多义性：指同一个词可能有几个不同但密切相关的含义，例如一个人的头、别针的头、组织的头。

④ Homonymy: it refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i. e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
（4）同音异义词：指不同含义的词具有相同的形式，即不同的词在发音或拼写上相同，或两者兼而有之的现象。

⑤ Hyponymy: it is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i. e. the class name, is called superordinate or hypernym. The lower terms are called hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other,e. g.
（5） 虚构：这是一个阶级成员的问题。这个意义上的上项关系，即类名，称为上位或上位。较低的术语称为下位词。同一上位的下位词是彼此的共下位词，例如。

Superordinate: animal
上级：动物

Hyponyms: dog, cat, rabbit, fox, tiger, lion...
下称：狗、猫、兔子、狐狸、老虎、狮子......

2. Words and Their Forms
2. 单词及其形式

(1) Morpheme: it is the smallest meaningful unit of language, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
（1）语素：它是语言的最小有意义单位，一个不能在不破坏或彻底改变意义的情况下被分割的单位。

(2) Lexeme: it can be understood as a family of words that differ only in their grammatical endings, for example the endings for number, case, tense, participle form, etc.(walked and walking are both word forms of the lexeme WALK)
（2）词位：可以理解为仅语法词尾不同的词族，例如数字、格、时态、分词形式等的词尾（walked 和 walking 都是词位 WALK 的词形）

(3) Free morpheme: morphemes like popular and teach can stand alone as a word are called free morphemes.
（3）自由语素：像流行和教这样的语素可以作为一个词单独存在，称为自由语素。

(4) Bound morpheme: morphemes like - ize and - er that cannot function as words by themselves are bound morphemes.
（4）绑定语素：像-ize 和-er 这样本身不能充当单词的语素是绑定语素。

(5) Root: it refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. All words contain a root, which may be a free or bound morpheme.
（5）词根：指一个词的基本形式，在不破坏其含义的情况下无法进一步分析。所有单词都包含一个词根，该词根可以是自由语素或绑定语素。

(6) Stem: it refers to any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.
（6）词干：指任何可以添加屈折词缀的语素或语素组合。它可以等同于词根，也可以等同于词根和派生词缀。

(7) Affix: it is a bound morpheme that cannot serve as a root. If it precedes other morphemes in a word,it is a prefix, and if it follows other morphemes, it is a suffix.
（7）词缀：是不能作为词根的绑定语素。如果它在一个词中位于其他语素之前，它是一个前缀，如果它在其他语素之后，它是一个后缀。

Inflectional affix: it only adds a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys,walks, John's. It does not change the word class of the word they attach to.
屈折词缀：它只给词干增加了一个微小或微妙的语法功能，比如玩具，散步，约翰的。它不会改变它们所附加的单词的单词类别。

Derivational affix: it is more productive and might or might not change the word class of the word they attach to, such as dark (adj.) and darkness (n.); friend(n.) and friendship (n.).
派生词缀：它更有成效，可能会也可能不会改变它们所附加的单词的词类，例如 dark（形容词）和 darkness（名词）;friend（名词）和 friendship（名词）。

(8) Derivation/ Affixation: it refers to the process to add an affix to an already existing form to create a word, which includes prefixation, suffixation and even both.
（8）派生/词缀：是指在已有的形式上添加词缀以创建单词的过程，包括前缀、后缀甚至两者兼而有之。

(9) Inflection: it refers to the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, case, etc.
（9）屈折词缀：是指通过增加数字、人称、格等屈折词缀来表现语法关系。

(10) Compounding: it is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases (free morphemes).Words formed in this way are called compounds.
（10）复合：是通过连接两个或多个基（自由语素）形成新词。以这种方式形成的单词称为复合词。

(11) Conversion: sometimes, categorization can take place without affixation, and when this happens, we call it conversion, such as have a swim(n.)→swim(v.)
（11）转换：有时，分类可以在没有附加的情况下进行，当这种情况发生时，我们称之为转换，例如有一个 swim（n.）→swim（v.）

(12) Coinage: it is also called invention and it refers to the introduction of a completely new word.
（12） 铸币：也称为发明，指引入一个全新的词。

(13) Blending: it is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example: brunch= breakfast+ lunch; sitcom= situation+ comedy.
（13）混合：是一种比较复杂的复合形式，通过将第一个单词的首部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来，或者仅将两个单词的初始部分连接起来，将两个单词混合在一起。例如：早午餐=早餐+午餐;情景喜剧=情境+喜剧。

(14) Back-formation: it happens when native speakers perceive an originally simple word. It refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example: denote← denotation.
（14） 反构：当母语人士感知到一个原本简单的单词时，就会发生这种情况。它指的是一种异常类型的构词，其中较短的单词是通过从语言中已有的较长形式中删除想象的词缀来派生的。例如：表示←外延。

(15) Clipping: it is also called abbreviation. It refers to a way of shortening a longer word into a shorter form. For example: advertisement→ ad.
（15）剪辑：也叫缩写。它指的是一种将较长的单词缩短为较短形式的方法。例如：广告→广告。

(16) Acronym: it is a word created by combining the first letters of the words of a phrase or a name. For example: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization →UNESCO.
（16） 首字母缩略词：它是由短语或名称的单词的首字母组合而成的单词。例如：联合国教育、科学及文化组织 →UNESCO。

3. Words and Their Use
3. 词语及其使用

(1) Style: we use style in a very broad sense to include level of formality (i. e., slang, colloquialism; or informal, neutral, formal or frozen styles) as well as styles such as humorous, ironic, poetic, literary, etc.e. g. kid, child, offspring
（1）风格：我们使用非常广泛的风格，包括正式程度（即俚语、口语，或非正式、中性、正式或冻结风格）以及幽默、讽刺、诗意、文学等风格。g. 孩子、孩子、后代

(2) Register: it refers to varieties of language defined by their topic and context of use, for example, the language of medicine, education, law, computer, etc.comes into this category.
（2）寄存器：是指由其主题和使用语境定义的语言变种，例如医学、教育、法律、计算机等语言属于这一类。

e. g. minor: the legal term for“child”; cardiac arrest: the medical term for“heart attack”.
例如。 未成年人： 法律术语“儿童”; 心脏骤停： 医学术语“心脏病发作”。

(3) Dialect: it is a term used to describe differences in geographical variation.
（3）方言：是用来描述地理差异的术语。

e. g. sidewalk(US)/ pavement (UK)
例如人行道（美国）/人行道（英国）

(4) Collocation: it is knowledge of what words are most likely to occur together.
（4）搭配：是知道哪些词最有可能一起出现。

e. g. make a decision(natural), come a decision (odd)
例如，做出决定（自然），做出决定（奇数）

(5) Idiom: it is a sequence of words which operates as a single semantic unit, and like many multi-word verbs, the meaning of the whole cannot be deduced from an understanding of the parts.
（5） 成语：它是作为单个语义单元运行的词序列，与许多多词动词一样，无法从对部分的理解中推导出整体的含义。

e. g. under the weather
例如在天气下

6.2 Reasons of teaching vocabulary 【简答论述】
6.2 词汇教学原因

Firstly, vocabulary plays an essential role in nearly all languages. “If structure is the skeleton of language, vocabulary is then the organ and flesh.” In some sense, vocabulary can be considered as the base for the acquisition of a certain language. A large vocabulary can enhance our basic language skills such as the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
首先，词汇在几乎所有语言中都起着至关重要的作用。“如果结构是语言的骨架，那么词汇就是器官和肉体。”从某种意义上说，词汇可以被认为是习得某种语言的基础。大量的词汇量可以增强我们的基本语言技能，例如听、说、读、写等技能。

Secondly, English is said to have the largest vocabulary in the world so that vocabulary teaching is then of no doubt important to EFL teaching.
其次，据说英语拥有世界上最大的词汇量，因此词汇教学无疑对 EFL 教学很重要。

Thirdly, vocabulary learning has always been one of the major problems to English learners inChina, especially to elementary learners. 【素材积累】 One problem is that students learn vocabulary incorrectly by just learning its Chinese translation in isolation of context and without knowing its formation rules, connotative meaning or collocations. When they come to reading or listening tasks with those words used in different contexts or in combination with other words, they get confused easily with the meaning they remembered. Another problem is that many students learn vocabulary in ineffective ways as they rote-learn all the vocabulary only before exams. After the exam, they quickly forget what they have learned.
（3）词汇学习一直是我国英语学习者，尤其是小学学习者面临的主要问题之一。【素材积累】一个问题是，学生仅仅在上下文之外学习中文翻译，而不知道其形成规则、内涵或搭配，从而错误地学习词汇。当他们在阅读或听力任务中使用这些单词在不同的上下文中或与其他单词组合时，他们很容易与他们记住的含义混淆。另一个问题是，许多学生以无效的方式学习词汇，因为他们只在考试前死记硬背所有词汇。考试结束后，他们很快就忘记了自己学到了什么。

6.3 Objectives of teaching vocabulary 【简答论述】
6.3 词汇教学目标

A central purpose in teaching should be to encourage and help the learner to become more aware of how native speakers and other proficiency speakers use the target language, and to be more sensitive to differences in nuances and shades of meaning.
教学的核心目的应该是鼓励和帮助学习者更加了解母语人士和其他熟练人士如何使用目标语言，并对含义的细微差别和深浅的差异更加敏感。

6.4 Principles of teaching vocabulary 【简答论述】
6.4 词汇教学原则 【简答论述】

The process of teaching vocabulary can be divided into four steps: selecting, presenting, practicing,and evaluation.
词汇教学过程可以分为四个步骤：选择、呈现、练习和评估。

1. Selecting vocabulary
1. 选择词汇

First, it is important to choose words that are most commonly and frequently used and take students’ level and need into account.
首先，重要的是要选择最常用和最频繁的词语，并考虑到学生的水平和需求。

Second, select appropriate teaching techniques at each stage of instruction. The focus and objectives at each stage are different, so the teaching techniques cannot be the same. Appropriate techniques contribute a lot to effective teaching.
其次，在教学的每个阶段选择合适的教学技巧。每个阶段的重点和目标不同，因此教学技巧不能相同。适当的技术对有效的教学有很大贡献。

2. Presenting vocabulary
2. 呈现词汇

Firstly, present words in a memorable and interesting way. Students will remember new vocabulary better if it is presented in a memorable way. We can't learn vocabulary without memorization,but we should try not to use it all the time.
首先，以令人难忘和有趣的方式呈现文字。如果以令人难忘的方式呈现新词汇，学生会更好地记住新词汇。我们不能不背诵词汇，但我们应该尽量不要一直使用它。

Secondly, we can present lexical items rather than individual words, for example, adding up the three words in put up with does not lead to the meaning tolerate.
其次，我们可以呈现词汇项目而不是单个单词，例如，将 put up with 中的三个单词相加不会导致 mean tolerance。

Thirdly, we need present words in meaningful contexts. This is because the acquisition and memory of vocabulary depend highly on the context in which it occurs. Furthermore, the teaching will be more impressive and effective.
第三，我们需要在有意义的上下文中出现词语。这是因为词汇的习得和记忆在很大程度上取决于它发生的上下文。此外，教学将更加令人印象深刻和有效。

Fourthly, present new items in spoken form first and written form latter. One is mainly because spoken form of language is normally viewed as primary and many writing systems are derived from the spoken form. The other one is that in practice many people acquire languages by hearing them first.
第四，首先以口头形式呈现新项目，然后以书面形式呈现。一主要是因为口语形式通常被视为主要语言形式，并且许多书写系统都源自口语形式。另一个是，在实践中，许多人通过先听到语言来获得语言。

3. Practicing
3. 练习

Firstly, expose students to new items frequently and help them guess out the meanings by making full use of the contexts in which those items occur.
首先，让学生经常接触新项目，并充分利用这些项目出现的上下文来帮助他们猜测其含义。

Secondly, provide students with more opportunities to practice using the new vocabulary items in various situations.
其次，为学生提供更多机会在各种情况下练习使用新词汇项目。

4. Evaluation
4. 评估

Firstly, check students’ performances constantly. Teachers can see whether students have already understood the new items.
首先，不断检查学生的表现。教师可以看到学生是否已经理解了新项目。

Secondly, evaluate students' performance positively. Students will be encouraged to learn more attentively when being praised or positively assessed.
其次，积极评价学生的表现。当受到表扬或积极评价时，将鼓励学生更加专心学习。

6.5 Techniques of teaching vocabulary 【简答论述】
6.5 词汇教学技巧

1. Presenting vocabulary
1. 呈现词汇

We'd better present all the important aspects of the frequently used words, such as pronunciation,spelling, meaning and usage. And some basic ways of presenting each aspect are roughly illustrated by the table that follows.
我们最好呈现常用单词的所有重要方面，例如发音、拼写、含义和用法。下表粗略说明了每个方面的一些基本呈现方式。

(1) Pronunciation
（1）发音

① The teacher says words correctly in a loud and clear manner.
（1）老师正确地说话，大声清晰。

② The teacher presents the promunciations of the words with the help of such media as tape-recorder or computer.
（2） 教师借助录音机或计算机等媒体呈现单词的发音。

(2) Spelling
（2）拼写

① The teacher directly writes the words on the blackboard.
（1）老师直接把字写在黑板上。

② The teacher shows the spelling of each word by using flashcards or slides.
（2） 教师使用抽认卡或幻灯片显示每个单词的拼写。

③ The teacher air-spells the words while spelling orally.
（3）老师在口头拼写时对单词进行空气拼写。

(3) Meaning
（3）意义

① The teacher makes use of pictures to present the meanings of each word. For example, teacher can show the meaning of“father”“mother” and“brother” by drawing a family tree.
（1）教师利用图片来呈现每个单词的含义。例如，老师可以通过画家谱来展示“父亲”“母亲”和“兄弟”的含义。

② The teacher presents the meanings by providing students with real contexts or real-life examples.For example, the teacher can show students his/ her own family photo and introduce his/ her father, mother,brother or sister so as to present the meanings of these words related to family members.
（2） 教师通过向学生提供真实的上下文或现实生活中的例子来呈现含义。例如，教师可以向学生展示他/她自己的家庭照片，并介绍他/她的父亲、母亲、兄弟或姐妹，以呈现这些词语与家庭成员有关的含义。

③ The teacher can also present the meaning directly and simply by translating the words into Chinese.
（3）教师还可以通过将单词翻译成中文来直接、简单地呈现含义。

④ The teacher can also explain the meanings by using the synonyms of the item, or by making contrast with the antonyms. For example, the teacher presents the meaning of the vocabulary item“kick the bucket”by listing its synonyms, like“die”, “ pass away”, etc.
（4）教师还可以使用项目的同义词或与反义词进行对比来解释含义。例如，老师通过列出词汇的同义词来呈现词汇的含义“踢桶”，如“死”、“逝”等。

⑤ The teacher can use word formation to present the meaning of one word. For example, if“important”and“common” are known words and students learn that the prefix“un-” usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite, they can easily understand and memorize the words“unimportant” and“uncommon”.
（5）教师可以用构词来呈现一个词的意思。例如，如果“重要”和“常见”是已知的单词，并且学生了解到前缀“un-”通常会将单词的含义更改为相反的含义，那么他们可以轻松理解和记忆“不重要”和“不常见”这两个词。

(4) Usage
（4） 用途

① The teacher presents the usage of each word by giving examples to help students get familiar with the grammatical rules related to it and the proper usage of it.
（1） 教师通过举例介绍每个单词的用法，帮助学生熟悉与之相关的语法规则和正确用法。

② The teacher explains how to use the words, either in Chinese or in English.
（2） 教师用中文或英文讲解单词的使用方法。

2. Practicing vocabulary
2. 练习词汇

Practice in vocabulary teaching can help students understand and memorize the new vocabulary items correctly, easily and effectively. It can also facilitate students’ ability of using the items properly and naturally. We can use different techniques in practicing different aspects of a word.
词汇教学练习可以帮助学生正确、轻松、有效地理解和记忆新词汇项目。它还可以促进学生正确和自然地使用物品的能力。我们可以使用不同的技巧来练习单词的不同方面。

(1) practice on pronunciation: imitation and repetition. This kind of practice can be done in chorus, in groups, in pairs, or individually.
（1）发音练习：模仿和重复。这种练习可以合唱、小组、结对或单独进行。

(2) practice on spelling
（2）拼写练习

① Oral spelling and air-spelling. Students are guided to spell the new word in the air and say the letters aloud along with the movements of their fingers.
（1） 口头拼写和空气拼写。引导学生在空中拼写新单词，并随着手指的动作大声说出字母。

② Copying and dictation. Although they seem to be kind of mechanical and boring, they are rather effective. And they can be done in class as classroom activities or after class as homework.
（2）复印和听写。虽然它们看起来有点机械和无聊，但它们相当有效。它们可以在课堂上作为课堂活动完成，也可以在课后作为家庭作业完成。

③ Games and activities
（3） 游戏和活动

1) Crossword puzzle. It is a game in which words are fitted into a pattern of numbered squares in answer to correspondingly numbered clues in such a way that words can be read across as well as. down when the game is completed.
1） 填字游戏。在这种游戏中，单词被装入编号方块的模式中，以回答相应编号的线索，这样单词就可以被阅读和阅读。游戏完成后向下。

2) Word search puzzle. It is a game which provides a list of words to be found which hide in the puzzle.
2） 单词搜索谜题。这是一款游戏，提供了隐藏在拼图中的单词列表。

3) Word riddle. They are riddles answered by a word. For example, the teacher can ask students“What start with a T, ends with a T, and is full of T(tea)?” And students are to answer it as“T-E-A-P-O-T, teapot”by spelling the word orally.
3）单词谜语。它们是一个词来回答的谜语。例如，老师可以问学生“什么以 T 开头，以 T 结尾，充满 T（茶）？学生要口头拼写这个词来回答“T-E-A-P-O-T，茶壶”。

4) Chain spelling. The teacher starts the game with“jump, J-U-M-P”. And then students must present another word beginning with the ending letter in“jump”, i. e. “p”. Students can continue the spelling practice like this to cover the spellings of a chain of words.
4） 链式拼写。老师以“跳跃，J-U-M-P”开始游戏。然后学生必须展示另一个以结尾字母开头的单词“跳跃”，即“p”。学生可以像这样继续拼写练习，以涵盖一连串单词的拼写。

5) Spelling race. The teacher divides the whole class into groups and then each group chooses one representative. The teacher reads a list of words one after another. At the same time, the representatives must write the words correctly on the board. The first student to finish spelling the word may get a point for the group.
5） 拼写竞赛。老师将全班分成小组，然后每组选出一名代表。老师一个接一个地阅读单词列表。同时，代表必须在黑板上正确写字。第一个完成拼写单词的学生可能会为小组获得一分。

(3) Communicative practice(practice on meaning and usage)
（3） 交际练习（意义和用法练习）

① Making dialogues. For example, after students have learnt possessive adjectives and pronouns such as my, mine, his, her, etc., the teacher can provide them with two or three sample dialogues in which the words are used, with some real objects used. The teacher can pick up a student's book and raise the book.He or She can ask“Look at here! Is that my book?” Pausing for a while, he or she can answer“No, it isn't mine. It's his book.” The get students to work in pairs to make their own dialogues.
（1） 进行对话。例如，在学生学习了所有格形容词和代词（如我的、我的、他的、她等）后，教师可以为他们提供两到三个使用单词的示例对话，并使用一些真实的对象。老师可以拿起学生的书并举起书。他或她可以问“看看这里！那是我的书吗？停顿了一会儿，他或她可以回答“不，这不是我的。这是他的书。让学生两人一组进行自己的对话。

② Putting words into simple commands. This is very useful to the beginners, especially when the teacher is to help students grasp the vocabulary items that can be easily presented by actions or with real objects. The language game“Polly says” can be one example.(Polly says, touch your nose.)
（2）将单词放入简单的命令中。这对初学者非常有用，尤其是当老师要帮助学生掌握可以通过动作或真实物体轻松呈现的词汇项目时。语言游戏“波莉说”就是一个例子。（波莉说，摸摸你的鼻子。

③ Telling stories or making up short stories. The newly learnt vocabulary items should occur in the stories so that the practice may be useful in enhancing students' mastery of the meanings and usage of those new items. The stories should not be too long or too complicated.
（3）讲故事或编短篇小说。新学到的词汇项目应该出现在故事中，这样练习可能有助于提高学生对这些新项目的含义和用法的掌握。故事不应该太长或太复杂。

④ Drawing or describing pictures. Students are put into pairs. One student has a picture, the other a blank piece of paper and a pencil. The student with the picture tells his or her partner what to draw so that the drawing ends up the same as the original picture.
（4）绘画或描述图片。学生被分成两对。一个学生有一张照片，另一个学生有一张白纸和一支铅笔。拿着这幅画的学生告诉他或她的伙伴要画什么，这样画的最终结果与原画相同。

⑤ Spotting the difference. Students are put into pairs. Each member of the pair receives a picture which is slightly different from his partner's. Students hide the pictures from one another and then, by a process of describing, questioning and answering, discover what the differences are.
（5）发现差异。学生被分成两对。两人的每个成员都会收到一张与他伴侣的照片略有不同的照片。学生们互相隐藏图片，然后通过描述、提问和回答的过程，发现差异是什么。

Summary: The teacher has to be aware that communicative practice is rather important in vocabulary teaching. More than that, timely evaluation and positive encouragement from the teacher are also necessary and important.
摘要：教师必须意识到交际练习在词汇教学中相当重要。不仅如此，老师的及时评价和积极鼓励也是必要和重要的。

(4) Consolidate the vocabulary
（4）巩固词汇

For many students, perhaps it is less difficult to learn words for the first time than to consolidate and remember them. It is often that we hear students complain that they keep learning and forgetting.Below are some vocabulary consolidation activities that can be done in class.
对于很多学生来说，也许第一次学习单词比巩固和记住单词更难。我们经常听到学生抱怨他们一直在学习和忘记。以下是一些可以在课堂上完成的词汇巩固活动。

① Labelling. Students are given a picture. They are to write the names of objects indicated in the picture.② Play a memory game. Students are shown a picture with many objects on it, or a series of different flash cards or magazine pictures. They have two minutes to memorize as many of the objects as they can.When time is up, the pictures or the cards will be taken away and the students have to write down everything they can remember seeing.
（1）标签。给学生一张照片。他们要写下图片中指示的物体的名称。（2） 玩记忆游戏。向学生展示一张上面有很多物体的图片，或者一系列不同的抽认卡或杂志图片。他们有两分钟的时间来记住尽可能多的物体。时间到了，图片或卡片将被拿走，学生必须写下他们记得看到的所有内容。

③ Guess meaning from context. Generally speaking, the topic, the grammatical structure, and the linguistic pattern where the new word appears all give hints to the students. For example, the students should be able to guess the meaning of workaholic in the following sentence: My father was a workaholic,and he worked so long that we rarely saw him.
（3）从上下文中猜测含义。一般来说，主题、语法结构以及新词出现的语言模式都会给学生提示。例如，学生应该能够猜出以下句子中工作狂的含义：我父亲是个工作狂，他工作的时间太长了，我们很少见到他。

④ Use word field. Give students a key word, for example travelling. The students have to write down all the words they can think of connected with travelling. They have a time limit, e. g. two minutes. When time is up, the person with the highest number of acceptable words is the winner. Any unusual word associations need to be explained by the students.
（4）使用词域。给学生一个关键词，例如旅行。学生必须写下他们能想到的所有与旅行有关的单词。它们有时间限制，例如两分钟。时间到了，可接受字数最多的人就是赢家。任何不寻常的单词联想都需要由学生解释。

⑤ Find synonyms and antonyms. The students are given a list of words and asked to finish pairs of words, either synonyms or antonyms.
（5）查找同义词和反义词。给学生一份单词列表，并要求他们完成成对的单词，无论是同义词还是反义词。

6.6 Students’ vocabulary learning
6.6 学生词汇学习

1. 【了解】 How to learn vocabulary on students’ own
1. 【了解】 如何自学词汇

(1) use personal category sheets: Learners can store new vocabulary on appropriate category sheets kept in a ring binder. The sheets could have headings such as topic or situations. He can add to the sheets and cross-reference them when necessary.
（1） 使用个人类别表：学习者可以将新词汇存储在保存在环形活页夹中的适当类别表上。工作表可以有主题或情况等标题。他可以添加到工作表中并在必要时交叉引用它们。

(2) use visuals: Diagrams and word trees can be used to highlight the relationships between items.
（2）使用视觉效果：可以使用图表和词树来突出项目之间的关系。

(3) use labels: As students learn new items of vocabulary, they can write them down on labels which they can stick to the appropriate objects in their home.
（3） 使用标签：当学生学习新的词汇时，他们可以将它们写在标签上，然后粘贴在家里适当的物体上。

(4) use alphabetical index file: it enables both the teacher and learners to keep track on lexical items covered and provides simple materials for quick revision activities.
（4） 使用按字母顺序排列的索引文件：它使教师和学习者都能跟踪所涵盖的词汇项目，并为快速复习活动提供简单的材料。

2. 【了解】 Incidental vocabulary learning
2. 【了解】 附带词汇学习

Incidental vocabulary learning is learning that occurs when the mind is focused elsewhere. Acommon view in vocabulary studies is that beyond a certain level of proficiency in a second language,vocabulary learning is more likely to be mainly incidental or implicit. Consequently, it is a very useful,especially for advanced students, to expand the volume of their vocabulary.
附带词汇学习是当思想集中在其他地方时发生的学习。词汇研究中的一个普遍观点是，在第二语言的一定熟练程度之后，词汇学习更有可能是主要是偶然的或隐性的。因此，扩大词汇量非常有用，特别是对于高级学生来说。

However, there is a prerequisite in incidental vocabulary learning that a two-to-three-thousand base is considered the minimum“threshold” that enables incidental learning to take place, because learners
然而，偶然词汇学习有一个先决条件，即两到三千个基数被认为是使偶然学习发生的最小“阈值”，因为学习者

should be given explicit instruction and practice in the first two to three thousand high-frequency words,according to various researchers.
根据不同的研究人员的说法，应该在前两到三千个高频词中给予明确的指导和练习。

The good way to promote incidental vocabulary learning is having multiple exposures to a word,which can be referred to as a“book flood” approach. For beginners, readers will probably give the best access to a large amount of input. For intermediate learners just on the threshold of reading authentic texts, it may be appropriate to read numerous authentic texts, but all on the same topic. Advanced students,on the other hand, should be encouraged to read a wide variety of authentic texts.
促进附带词汇学习的好方法是对一个词进行多次接触，这可以称为“书籍泛滥”方法。对于初学者来说，读者可能会最好地获得大量输入。对于刚刚处于阅读正宗文本门槛的中级学习者来说，阅读大量正宗文本可能是合适的，但都在同一主题上。另一方面，应鼓励高年级学生阅读各种正宗文本。

Incidental learning from exposure to texts will be greatly facilitated if learners use vocabulary-learning strategies such as guessing meaning from context, keyword method, vocabulary notebook.Strategies should aid both in discovering the meaning of a new word and in consolidating a word once it has been encountered.
如果学习者使用词汇学习策略，例如从上下文中猜测含义、关键字方法、词汇笔记本，那么接触文本的偶然学习将大大促进。策略应该有助于发现一个新单词的含义，并在遇到一个单词后巩固它。

3. 【简答论述】 Develop vocabulary learning strategies
3. 【简答论述】 制定词汇学习策略

Due to limited class time, students will not be able to learn all the vocabulary simply from class teaching. Thus, we need to help students develop items vocabulary learning strategies so that they can effectively acquire more vocabulary on their own, especially outside the class.
由于上课时间有限，学生将无法仅仅从课堂教学中学习所有词汇。因此，我们需要帮助学生制定项目词汇学习策略，以便他们能够有效地自学获得更多的词汇，尤其是在课外。

(1) We should help students form a habit of reviewing regularly. According to The EbbinghausForgetting Curve, students will nearly forget 70% what they learnt yesterday. Students need to be encouraged to revise the newly learnt vocabulary on a regular basis so that they are able to take“ownership”of these words and start using them confidently.
（1）帮助学生养成定期复习的习惯。根据艾宾豪斯遗忘曲线，学生几乎会忘记他们昨天学到的 70% 的内容。需要鼓励学生定期复习新学的词汇，以便他们能够“拥有”这些单词并开始自信地使用它们。

(2) We should encourage students to guess meaning from context. Initially students need the teacher's help regarding what contextual clues to look for and how these clues can contribute to the discovery of meaning. Generally speaking, the topic, the grammatical structure, and the linguistic pattern where the new word appears all give hints to the students.
（2）我们应该鼓励学生从上下文中猜测含义。最初，学生需要老师的帮助来寻找哪些上下文线索以及这些线索如何有助于发现意义。一般来说，主题、语法结构以及新词出现的语言模式都会给学生提示。

(3) We can teach them to organize vocabulary effectively. There is evidence that if information is organized and stored in special ways, it is more likely to be retained and easier to retrieve. As organization is the key to memory, this is an important skill that would-be efficient learners should strive to possess.
（3）我们可以教他们有效地组织词汇。有证据表明，如果信息以特殊方式组织和存储，则更有可能被保留并且更容易检索。由于组织是记忆的关键，这是潜在的高效学习者应该努力拥有的一项重要技能。

(4) We can instruct them to use a dictionary. The role of source books lies in allowing learners to be self-sufficient. Dictionaries provide learners with a powerful analytical tool, not only for finding out meanings and checking spellings, but also for gaining insights into the grammatical aspects of the item in
（4） 我们可以指导他们使用字典。原始书籍的作用在于让学习者自给自足。词典为学习者提供了强大的分析工具，不仅可以找出含义和检查拼写，还可以深入了解该词典的语法方面。

question. The dictionary can also overcome one of the limitations of contextual exercises in that the dictionary presents the prototypical meaning of the word. Also the activity of matching the dictionary definition of the word to its use in context helps to create deeper links within the students' mind.
问题。词典还可以克服上下文练习的局限性之一，因为词典呈现了单词的原型含义。此外，将单词的字典定义与其在上下文中的用法相匹配的活动有助于在学生的脑海中建立更深层次的联系。

(5) Students should manage strategy use. They should be guided to self-evaluate the effectiveness of their strategy used for vocabulary learning. Based on their evaluation, they may drop certain strategies and try others. Teachers can also provide opportunities for students to share their learning experiences so that they can learn from each other by expanding their strategy used to include more.
（5） 学生应管理策略的使用。应该引导他们自我评估他们用于词汇学习的策略的有效性。根据他们的评估，他们可能会放弃某些策略并尝试其他策略。教师还可以为学生提供分享学习经验的机会，以便他们可以通过扩展他们的策略来相互学习，以包括更多内容。

4. 【简答论述】 How to enlarge students’ vocabulary
4. 【简答论述】 如何扩大学生词汇量

It is not uncommon to hear many EFL students complain that they have such a limited amount ofEnglish vocabulary and English words are so difficult to remember. So it is important for teachers to help students enlarge their vocabulary in an efficient and effective way.
经常听到许多 EFL 学生抱怨他们的英语词汇量如此有限，英语单词很难记住。因此，教师以高效和有效的方式帮助学生扩大词汇量非常重要。

(1) Taking contextualized practice. One of the most effective ways to enlarge one's vocabulary and to promote a better memory is to put the words in meaningful contexts, so contextualized practice is of great necessity. For example, contextual guesswork is often a desirable activity to help students enlarge their vocabulary. Using context clues will be able to make logical guess. There are three context clues that are quite common.
（1） 采取情境化实践。扩大词汇量和促进更好记忆的最有效方法之一是将单词放在有意义的上下文中，因此情境化练习非常必要。例如，上下文猜测通常是帮助学生扩大词汇量的理想活动。使用上下文线索将能够做出合乎逻辑的猜测。有三个上下文线索非常常见。

① definition clues. Some sentences include the direct definition for a certain new word. According to the definition, we can guess the meaning of the new word.
（1）定义线索。有些句子包括某个新词的直接定义。根据定义，我们可以猜出新词的含义。

② synonyms and antonyms clues. When a new word has just been taught, the teacher can ask students to think about words which have the same meaning or words which have the opposite meaning to this new word. But it might not be easy for students to discover them if students' vocabulary is too limited.
（2）同义词和反义词线索。当刚教一个新单词时，教师可以要求学生思考与这个新单词具有相同含义的单词或具有相反含义的单词。但如果学生的词汇量太有限，学生可能并不容易发现它们。

③ example clues. Several examples may be listed in the context as clues for students to guess the meanings of certain new words and thus enlarge their vocabulary.
（3）示例线索。上下文中可能会列出几个例子，作为学生猜测某些新单词含义的线索，从而扩大他们的词汇量。

(2) Practicing on knowledge of word formation. Another way is to make students get familiar with the rules of word formation, especially the rules of affixation and knowledge about roots. We can do“match work”, which means students have to match the affixes in one column with the word roots in the other.
（2）练习构词知识。另一种方法是让学生熟悉构词规则，尤其是词缀规则和词根知识。我们可以做“匹配作业”，这意味着学生必须将一列中的词缀与另一列中的词根相匹配。

(3) Associating one word with other words. Require students to“weave vocabulary webs” by brainstorming and associating one word with other words, including looking for synonyms or antonyms.
（3）将一个词与其他词联系起来。要求学生通过集思广益并将一个单词与其他单词联系起来“编织词汇网”，包括寻找同义词或反义词。

It helps a lot in encouraging students to recall what they have already learnt and create meaningful associations between the known words and the unfamiliar words.
它有助于鼓励学生回忆他们已经学过的知识，并在已知单词和不熟悉的单词之间建立有意义的联系。

6.7 Some points about vocabulary in the New Curriculum Standard 【素材积累】
6.7 关于新课程标准中词汇的几点 【 素材积累】

Vocabulary knowledge
词汇知识

1. Content requirements
1. 内容要求

Vocabulary, also known as lexicon, is the sum of all words and phrases in a language. Words are the building blocks of language and the smallest language units that can be used independently.Learning vocabulary does not simply mean memorizing the sound, spelling, and meaning of the words.More importantly, learning vocabulary means using words in contextualized activities such as listening,speaking, reading, viewing, and writing to understand and express information or opinions related to various topics.
词汇，也称为词典，是一种语言中所有单词和短语的总和。单词是语言的组成部分，也是可以独立使用的最小语言单位。学习词汇不仅仅是意味着记住单词的发音、拼写和含义。更重要的是，学习词汇意味着在听、说、读、看、写等情境化活动中使用单词来理解和表达与各种主题相关的信息或观点。

In senior high school, the teaching of vocabulary should aim at a higher level of depth and width in using vocabulary. In addition, vocabulary teaching should focus on cultivating students' awareness of lexical chunks and further expanding their vocabulary through reading so as to enhance students’ability to understand and express meaning more accurately.
在高中阶段，词汇教学应以更高的词汇使用深度和广度为目标。此外，词汇教学应着重培养学生对词汇块的认识，通过阅读进一步扩大词汇量，以增强学生更准确地理解和表达意思的能力。

2. Teaching suggestions
2. 教学建议

Vocabulary learning should be integrated language practice that is carried out in combination with a specific theme and in a specific context. Through listening, speaking, reading, viewing, and writing,students perceive and understand the meaning of relevant themes, and use words to convey information and express meaning related to the themes.
词汇学习应该是结合特定主题和特定背景进行的综合语言练习。通过听、说、读、看、写，学生感知和理解相关主题的含义，并用文字传达信息，表达与主题相关的意义。

At the same time, in these activities, students should use their knowledge of the part of speech,common collocations of words, and thematic content to build different lexical networks, accumulate lexical chunks, expand vocabulary, enhance the sense of language, transfer the skills of using vocabulary, and finally internalize vocabulary.
同时，在这些活动中，学生要运用词性知识、词语常用搭配、主题内容，构建不同的词汇网络，积累词汇块，扩大词汇量，增强语感，传授使用词汇的技巧，最终内化词汇。

In specific teaching, teachers should guide students to use the structure of words and the context of texts to understand word meaning, to use resources such as the dictionary to learn the usage of words,and to use new words to express meaning boldly.
在具体教学中，教师应引导学生运用词语结构和文本上下文来理解词义，利用词典等资源学习词语的用法，用生词大胆表达意思。