发音部位(Place of articulation)
发音部位（Place of articulation）
发资方式 (Mannet of rticuAation)
（记录的曼尼特） | 双唇膏 published
发表 | 暴病责 签发机关 | 唐同音 Denual
Denual （英语） | 齿戴音ANeoLi | 税劳务 | 软弱音velar
软弱音软腭 | 声门音 Glottal
声门 |
爆破音 Stops/ Plosives
停止/填充物 | p | | | t | | k | |
| b | | | d | | g | |
豫拖杏 Fricatives
摩擦音 | | | e | s | ' | | h |
| | v | 8 | 2 | 3 | | |
察探音 Affricates
塞擦音 | | | | tr ts | tʃ | | |
| | | | drdz | dʒ | | |
鼻音 Nasals
鼻音 鼻音 | m | | | n | | n | |
流音 Uquids/ Lateral
Uquids/侧向 | | | | 1r | | | |
滑音 Glides
滑音滑翔 | | | | | j | | |
具体的辅音分类了解即可，一般不会考到这么细，但是要掌握辅音的分类标准，即manner of iarticulation 和 place of articulation。拓展理解可看《星火语言学》P26-27.
2) Consonant clusters: a group of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel between them.:It produces more than one consonant sound, such as / sp/ in sport.
2） 辅音簇：一组辅音一起出现在一个音节中，它们之间没有元音。：它产生不止一个辅音，例如运动中的 / sp/。
3. Digraphs: a group of two or more symbols that actually represent one sound, such as“ph” represents /f/ in photo.
3. 有向字母：一组两个或多个符号，实际上代表一个声音，例如“ph”代表照片中的 /f/。
(五) Suprasegmental features:
（五）超节段特征：
1. Syllable: it is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
1. 音节：它是语音中的一个单位，通常比一个声音长，比整个单词小。
2. Pitch: the degree of highness or downess of the sound that we speak. It is produced by frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. 音调由频率决定
2. 音高：我们说的声音的高低程度。它是由声带的振动频率产生的。音调由频率决定
3. Stress: refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Three ways to give stress: pitch change,length of vowel, vowel quality(loudness).
3. 重音：指产生音节时所用的力程度。三种重音方式：音高变化、元音长度、元音质量（响度）。
1) Word stress: refers to prominence at the word level; if the wrong syllable is stressed, listeners often will not understand what word is being pronounced.
1）词重音：指词层面的突出;如果重读了错误的音节，听众通常不会理解发音的单词。
> Strong form: content words
> 强形式：内容词
> Weak form/ Reduction: Function words; Teaching weak forms help in achieving an English-sounding rhythm.
> 弱形式/简化：功能词;教授弱形式有助于实现听起来像英语的节奏。
2) Sentence stress: refers to the patterns of stressed and instressed syllables over a whole sentence. It is decided by the meaning or importance of the word.
2）句子重音：指整个句子中重读和重读音节的模式。它是由单词的含义或重要性决定的。
> Sense tress: show meaning
> 感觉发际：显示意义
ﺤ Logical stress: show contrast
ح 逻辑重音：显示对比
John bought a red bicycle.(重音落在不同单词意思侧重点不同)
Content words are often stressed. Structural/ Function words【2017】 tend to be unstressed.
内容词经常被强调。结构/功能词【2017】往往不重读。
5. Rhythm: it means the regularity of stress. English is a stress-timed language which means that the stressed syllables tend to recur at regular intervals. Each foot is given equal length. That is to say, the time we spent on a sentence is not decided by the number of syllables but the number of stressed syllables.
5、节奏：表示压力的规律性。英语是一种重读定时语言，这意味着重读音节往往会定期重复出现。每只脚的长度相等。也就是说，我们在一个句子上花费的时间不是由音节的数量决定的，而是由重读音节的数量决定的。
Rabbits eat carrots.
兔子吃胡萝卜。
A rabbit is eating some carrots.
一只兔子正在吃一些胡萝卜。
The rabbits have been eating some of the carrot
兔子们一直在吃一些胡萝卜
6. Intonation: the pattem or melody/ music of pitch changes in speech. Changes in pitch direction are usually described in terms of rising and falling tones. High fall; High rise; Low rise; Fall rise.
6. 语调：语音中音高变化的节奏或旋律/音乐。音高方向的变化通常用上升和下降音来描述。高坠;高层建筑;低层;下降上升。
Different intonations change the meaning of an utterance.
不同的语调会改变话语的含义。
Intonation conveys certain meaning of the speaker.
语调传达了说话者的某些含义。
If the speaker and the listener are not aware of the appropriate use of intonation, misunderstanding may even arise and thus the failure of communication may be caused.
如果说话者和听者不知道语调的正确使用，甚至可能产生误解，从而导致沟通失败。
Rhythm interacts with sentence stress and intonation to help speakers organize speech into meaningful units.
节奏与句子重音和语调相互作用，帮助说话者将语音组织成有意义的单元。
7 Tone【声调】: the basic unit of intonation is the tone unit
7 声调【声调】：语调的基本单位是声调单位
It·· hard for make sense of intonation when its features are removed from their contexts of use. Traditional rules,such as use a rising tone in yes/ no questions, and falling tone in wh-questions are, at best, rules of thumb.Intonation seems to be a system that is best acquired through exposure, rather than learner through formal study.
它··很难理解语调，当其特征从其使用上下文中删除时。传统规则，例如在是/否问题中使用上升的语气，在 wh 问题中使用下降的语气充其量只是经验法则。语调似乎是一个最好通过接触获得的系统，而不是通过正式学习来学习。
8. Sense group:a meaningful unit of words in a sentence that expresses a complete idea or concept.
8. 意义组：句子中表达完整思想或概念的有意义的单词单元。
9. Pausing : refers to the brief stops or breaks we make between these sense-groups when speaking or reading aloud.
9. 停顿：指我们在说话或大声朗读时在这些意义组之间进行的短暂停止或中断。
三、 How
三、如何
(一) Goal: phonological competence: 【重点】
（一）目标：语音能力：【重点】
1. Consistency: the pronunciation should be smooth and natural.
1. 一致性：发音要流畅自然。
2. Intelligibility the pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners.
2. 清晰度：发音应为听众所理解。
3. Communicative efficiency: the pronunciation should help convey the meaning that is intended by the spcaker.
3. 交际效率：发音应有助于传达 spcaker 的意图。
4. Why most learners of English cannot acquire native-like English pronunciation?
4. 为什么大多数英语学习者无法获得类似母语的英语发音？
> According to the Critical Period Hypothesis【术语】, if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age, perhaps around puberty, then due to changes such as maturation of the brain, it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.
> 根据关键期假说【术语】，如果人类在一定年龄之前没有学习一门外语，也许是在青春期左右，那么由于大脑的成熟等变化，就不可能像母语人士一样学习外语。
> The amount of exposure to English is another factor that determines if thestudents can acquire native-likeEnglish pronunciation. The more exposure students have to authentic English, the more progress they wilf make in pronunciation.
> 接触英语的次数是决定学生是否能获得类似母语的英语发音的另一个因素。学生接触地道英语的次数越多，他们的发音进步就越大。
Owing to biological and physiological difference, different students have different phonetic ability. Some students are more sensitive to and better at imitating sounds than other students.
由于生理和生理差异，不同的学生具有不同的语音能力。有些学生比其他学生对声音更敏感，更擅长模仿声音。
(二) Principles:【重点】 239 words
（二）原则：【重点】 239字
Preparation:
制备：
1. Pronunciation teaching should usually involve these basic procedures: presentation, practice, consolidation and evaluation.
1. 发音教学通常应包括以下基本程序：演示、练习、巩固和评估。
2. The goal of pronunciation teaching cannot be set too high as to make our students acquire native-like pronunciation. The realistic goal is to help students acquire intelligibility, consistency, and communicative efficiency.
2. 发音教学的目标不能定得太高，以至于使我们的学生获得类似母语的发音。现实的目标是帮助学生获得清晰度、一致性和沟通效率。
3. Select techniques that are appropriate at each stage of instruction.
3. 选择适合每个教学阶段的技术。
Presentation what, how, when
演示内容、方式、时间
1. The difficult phonological items for most students are to be stressed. For instance, many Chinese English speakers may find it difficult to tell the difference between two consonants /θ/ and /s/ or two English vowels/i:/ and/i/.
1. 对大多数学生来说，困难的语音项目是要强调的。例如，许多说中文英语的人可能会发现很难区分两个辅音 /θ/ 和 /s/ 或两个英语元音 /i：/ 和 /i/ 之间的区别。
2. Teaching pronunciation through teacher modeling and students imitating. Teachers should speak correctly and naturally at a normal speed and insist on the same from the student.
2、通过教师建模和学生模仿来教授发音。教师应该以正常的速度正确、自然地说话，并坚持学生也这样做。
3. Pronunciation should never be treated as an absolutely isolated part in a lesson. For example, when we teach the plural forms of nouns, we can take on some pronunciation practices on final consonants such as /s/or/z/.
3. 发音永远不应被视为课程中绝对孤立的部分。例如，当我们教授名词的复数形式时，我们可以对 /s/或/z/ 等词尾辅音进行一些发音练习。
4. Teaching pronunciation in the stream of speech and in context.(good for suprasegmental features)
4. 在语音流和上下文中教授发音。（适用于超节段特征）
5. Pronunciation teaching should not occupy too much time in a lesson.
5. 发音教学不应在一节课中占用太多时间。
6. Teachers can decide when to include pronunciation teaching into lesson sequences.
6. 教师可以决定何时将发音教学纳入课程序列。
Practice:
实践：
1. Practice should be stressed. To make it, teachers should design a great variety of appropriate activities for practice.
1、要强调实践。为了做到这一点，教师应该设计各种适当的练习活动。
2. Practicing activities should be organized from easy to difficult, from simple to complex.
2、练习活动要从易到难，从简单到复杂组织。
