COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY AND EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS: PREVIOUS OBSTACLES AND POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS
諮商心理學與員工協助方案：過去的障礙與潛在的貢獻

$ABSTRACT$$ABSTRACT$ABSTRACTA B S T R A C T : In the last two decades, an important new therapeutic delivery system has been emerging to serve the needs of the American workforce, Known as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), these company and community based programs were created to provide mental health services to workers whose job performance is impaired due to substance abuse or other difficulties. Although there are obvious similarities between the mission espoused by EAPs and traditions of the counseling psychology profession, many members of our discipline have only recently become involved in these programs. This paper discusses various reasons why counseling psychologists have not become involved with EAPs. It also presents some ways that counseling psychologists may contribute to these programs and it highlights the similarities in the philosophies and the activities of EAP and counseling psychology practitioners and scientists. Additionally, some suggestions for how to prepare counseling psychologists for entrance into the EAP profession are offered. Finally, a brief research agenda designed to guide counseling psychologists who are interested in the study of EAP related variables is presented.
在過去二十年中，一種重要的新型治療服務系統逐漸興起，以滿足美國勞動力的需求。這些被稱為員工協助計畫（Employee Assistance Programs，簡稱 EAPs）的公司及社區基礎計畫，旨在為因藥物濫用或其他困難而影響工作表現的員工提供心理健康服務。儘管 EAPs 所倡導的使命與諮商心理學專業的傳統有明顯的相似之處，但我們領域的許多成員直到最近才開始參與這些計畫。本文探討了諮商心理學家未積極參與 EAPs 的各種原因，並提出諮商心理學家可能對這些計畫做出貢獻的方式，強調 EAP 與諮商心理學從業者及研究者在理念與活動上的相似性。此外，本文也提供了一些建議，說明如何準備諮商心理學家進入 EAP 專業領域。最後，本文簡要提出一個研究議程，旨在指導對 EAP 相關變項研究感興趣的諮商心理學家。

In the last two decades, an important, new therapeutic delivery system has been emerging to serve the needs of the American workforce.
在過去二十年中，一種重要且嶄新的治療服務系統逐漸興起，以滿足美國勞動力的需求。

Known as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), these company and community based programs were created to provide mental health services to workers whose job performance is impaired due to substance abuse or other difficulties (Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a; Gerstein, 1990; Roman & Blum, 1985). Relying on self, supervisory, and other types (e.g., peers, medical) of referral (Bayer, 1987; Trice & Roman, 1978), EAPs have used a number of preventive and remedial strategies to rehabilitate troubled employees. The purpose of such activity is the restoration of acceptable levels of job performance in a dysfunctional, but otherwise valuable, worker.
這些被稱為員工協助計畫（Employee Assistance Programs，EAPs）的公司及社區基礎計畫，旨在為因藥物濫用或其他困難而影響工作表現的員工提供心理健康服務（Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a；Gerstein, 1990；Roman & Blum, 1985）。EAPs 依靠自我、主管及其他類型（例如同儕、醫療）轉介（Bayer, 1987；Trice & Roman, 1978），採用多種預防及補救策略來協助問題員工復健。此類活動的目的是恢復功能失調但仍具價值的員工的可接受工作表現水準。

Although there are obvious similarities between the mission espoused by EAPs and the traditions of the counseling psychology profession, many members of our discipline have only recently become aware of and involved with these programs (Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a; 1988b) and other workplace programs (e.g., health, training, & personnel departments) and activities (e.g., organizational consultation, development, & assessment) (Foley & Redfering, 1987; Oberer & Lee, 1986; Osipow, 1982; Toomer, 1982). Our lack of linkage with the EAP movement and particularly research on various aspects of EAPs can be attributed to many factors. For instance, early “colonization” of EAPs by recovering alcohol abusers and industrial social workers encouraged the development of EAPs outside the traditional helping discipline of psychology, counseling, psychiatry, and psychiatric social work. Other barriers (e.g., methodological, philosophical, & pragmatic) may have hindered the involvement of the counseling psychology profession in the EAP movement as well.
儘管 EAPs 所倡導的使命與諮商心理學專業的傳統有明顯的相似之處，我們這個領域的許多成員直到最近才開始意識到並參與這些計畫（Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a; 1988b）以及其他職場計畫（例如，健康、訓練與人事部門）和活動（例如，組織諮詢、發展與評估）（Foley & Redfering, 1987; Oberer & Lee, 1986; Osipow, 1982; Toomer, 1982）。我們與 EAP 運動，特別是對 EAP 各方面研究的缺乏連結，可以歸因於多種因素。例如，EAP 早期由戒酒者和工業社工「殖民」的現象，促使 EAP 在心理學、諮商、精神醫學及精神社工等傳統助人學科之外發展。其他障礙（例如方法論、哲學及務實層面）也可能阻礙了諮商心理學專業參與 EAP 運動。

Traditionally, members of our profession have preferred to conduct laboratory studies or projects in educational facilities (e.g., counseling centers; schools) rather than field studies (Gerstein, 1990). In contrast to field studies, the former projects offered investigators an opportunity to control numerous confounding variables, and protect the internal validity of the dependent measures and the experimental design. Given this orientation, it is conceivable that persons in our profession have neglected to carry out EAP research because, for the most part, this type of research must be conducted in field settings with persons other than students.
傳統上，我們這個專業的成員較偏好在實驗室或教育機構（例如，輔導中心、學校）進行研究，而非進行實地研究（Gerstein, 1990）。與實地研究相比，前者的研究讓研究者有機會控制許多干擾變項，並保護依變項測量和實驗設計的內部效度。基於這種取向，可以想見我們專業的人員可能忽略了進行 EAP 研究，因為大多數此類研究必須在實地環境中，且對象非學生。

Related to this explanation, members of our profession may have avoided pursuing EAP research because it is difficult and time consum-
與此說明相關，我們專業的成員可能避免從事 EAP 研究，因為這類研究困難且耗時—
ing to secure data sites outside of the academic community, and also cope with the logistics of gathering information in field settings. Moreover, the process and the technique of collecting data on various aspects of EAPs (e.g., how supervisors identify & refer troubled workers to their EAP) may have presented an obstacle to researchers who, historically, have been accustomed to observing behavior in the confines of their laboratory or school.
前往學術界以外的資料網站，並且應付在實地環境中蒐集資訊的後勤工作。此外，蒐集有關 EAP 各方面資料的過程與技術（例如主管如何識別並轉介有問題的員工至其 EAP）可能對研究者構成障礙，因為他們歷來習慣於在實驗室或學校的範圍內觀察行為。

Another reason why persons in our profession may have failed to get involved with EAPs might be more connected to the long standing scientific or philosophic zeitgeist in our profession, rather than the nature of the setting where research may be conducted. We contend that, over the years, counseling psychologists who have been interested in vocational behavior have focused most of their attention on vocational choice and not occupational adjustment, particularly as it relates to college and high school students’ career decision-making behaviors. We believe that this focus helped to shape an expectation in our profession that it was highly desirable to engage in counseling and research on vocational choice as opposed to vocational adjustment. Obviously, EAP personnel are probably more interested in therapy techniques and research projects that deal with worker adjustment as compared to career choice.
我們專業領域中有人未能參與員工協助方案（EAP）的另一個原因，可能與我們專業長期以來的科學或哲學時代精神有關，而非研究進行場域的性質。我們主張，多年來，對職業行為感興趣的諮商心理學家，大多將注意力集中在職業選擇上，而非職業適應，特別是針對大學及高中學生的職涯決策行為。我們認為，這種焦點形塑了我們專業中一種期待，即從事職業選擇的諮商與研究被視為高度理想的方向，而非職業適應。顯然，EAP 人員可能更關注治療技術及與工作者適應相關的研究項目，而非職涯選擇。

While we recognize that there are many compelling arguments that could be offered to justify this focus (e.g., structurally & philosophically, it was necessary to investigate vocational choice before adjustment) and we support these arguments, it still seems that members of our profession have neglected a thorough examination of how persons adjust to their choice, progress in their careers, and behave in their workplace. For instance, counseling researchers have conducted many studies on the measurement of values, aptitudes, and interests as related to career choice and placement, but they have pursued far fewer studies on what happens to persons (e.g., vocational success; occupational mental health) once they enter their chosen occupation. We suspect that industrial and clinical psychologists have paid closer attention to this latter area.
雖然我們承認有許多有力的論點可以用來支持這種焦點（例如，從結構上和哲學上來說，必須先探討職業選擇，才能進一步研究調適），而且我們也支持這些論點，但我們的專業成員似乎仍忽略了對個人如何調適其選擇、職業生涯的進展以及在職場中的行為進行全面檢視。例如，輔導研究者已經進行了許多關於價值觀、能力和興趣與職業選擇及安置相關的測量研究，但他們對於個人進入所選職業後的情況（如職業成功、職業心理健康）所做的研究則少得多。我們懷疑工業心理學家和臨床心理學家對後者領域的關注較多。

The next reason why persons in our profession may have avoided EAPs fits with our previous explanation. Historically, in general, counseling psychologists have investigated intra- and inter-personal factors linked with vocational behavior. For the most part, persons affiliated with our profession have not studied specific features of the work environment (e.g., organizational structure & climate; physical surroundings; composition of work groups) as it affects career adjustment. We believe that these variables must be considered when pursuing adjustment research in field settings, and other projects associated with how
下一個我們專業人士可能避免參與 EAPs 的原因，與我們之前的解釋相符。歷史上，諮商心理學家通常調查與職業行為相關的個人內在及人際因素。大多數與我們專業相關的人士並未研究工作環境的具體特徵（例如，組織結構與氣氛、物理環境、工作團隊組成）如何影響職業調適。我們認為，在進行實地調適研究及其他與 EAPs 運作相關的專案時，必須考慮這些變項。

EAPs function. Once again, it is possible that an investigation of these factors might have presented counseling psychologists with a number of methodological and logistical problems (e.g., internal validity; sampling procedures) that they were unwilling to resolve.
同樣地，調查這些因素可能會給諮商心理學家帶來許多方法論及後勤上的問題（例如，內部效度、抽樣程序），而他們不願意去解決這些問題。

Another obstacle that may have contributed to the limited number of EAP studies carried out by members of our profession deals with the inherent difficulties involved in designing theoretical models that can explain how EAPs operate. We contend that counseling researchers might have ignored this topic because, in many instances, it requires the development and consideration of a synthesis of constructs tied to counseling, social and industrial/organizational psychology, occupational sociology, labor relations, and management. Furthermore, to establish this bridge, investigators must understand how individual, environmental, and economic (e.g., money) factors function in the workplace to influence employees’ behavior, EAP activities, and the structure and process of carrying out research. Given their commitment to the ethics and purpose of scientific inquiry, we suspect that counseling researchers have been fairly uncomfortable confronting the economic variables that are associated with how research should be conducted in business settings, and what contribution research outcomes should make to the profitability of an organization (Gerstein, 1990; Osipow, 1982). In other words, philosophical differences in the principles endorsed by the business and human service communities might have caused counseling psychologists to avoid practicing in business settings.
另一個可能導致我們專業成員進行的 EAP 研究數量有限的障礙，與設計能解釋 EAP 運作方式的理論模型所固有的困難有關。我們主張，諮商研究者可能忽略了這個主題，因為在許多情況下，這需要發展並考慮一個結合諮商、社會及工業/組織心理學、職業社會學、勞資關係與管理等構念的綜合體。此外，為了建立這座橋樑，研究者必須了解個人、環境及經濟（例如金錢）因素如何在職場中運作，進而影響員工行為、EAP 活動，以及研究的結構與過程。鑑於他們對科學探究倫理與目的的承諾，我們推測諮商研究者在面對與企業環境中研究應如何進行及研究成果應對組織獲利所應做貢獻相關的經濟變數時，感到相當不自在（Gerstein, 1990；Osipow, 1982）。 換句話說，企業界與人類服務界所支持的原則上的哲學差異，可能導致諮商心理學家避免在企業環境中執業。

Finally, we propose that our training programs have also viewed EAP research and services as being outside the mainstream of counseling. In fact, we suspect that most training programs have not incorporated an extensive curriculum on the provision of a variety of possible services (e.g., program development, evaluation, & research; consultation; staff training) that may be offered in business and industrial settings (see Foley & Redfering, 1987). Assuming our suspicions are accurate, it is not surprising that persons in our profession have conducted little EAP research and have infrequently associated with these programs. In general, they have not been prepared to pursue this line of inquiry, nor have they been trained to function as EAP staff members or other personnel affiliated with corporations or businesses. Given the ever changing nature of the social service marketplace and the growth of the 4th party’s (e.g., EAPs, HMOs, PPOs) role in the delivery of mental health services, it is imperative that the counseling profession develop a more prominent position in the business community as treatment providers, administrators, program developers, and researchers (Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b).
最後，我們提出，我們的培訓課程也將員工協助計畫（EAP）的研究與服務視為諮商主流之外的領域。事實上，我們懷疑大多數培訓課程並未納入有關提供多種可能服務（例如，計畫開發、評估與研究；諮詢；員工訓練）於企業及工業環境中的廣泛課程（參見 Foley & Redfering, 1987）。假設我們的猜測是正確的，那麼本專業人士進行 EAP 研究甚少，且與這些計畫的聯繫也不頻繁，便不足為奇。一般而言，他們並未被準備好從事此類研究，也未接受過作為 EAP 工作人員或其他與企業相關人員的訓練。 鑑於社會服務市場不斷變化，以及第四方（例如 EAPs、HMOs、PPOs）在心理健康服務提供中角色的成長，輔導專業必須在商業社群中發展出更顯著的地位，擔任治療提供者、管理者、方案開發者及研究者（Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b）。

Regardless of the obstacles that have curtailed our involvement in the EAP movement, there are numerous similarities between EAPs and the profession of counseling psychology in terms of each discipline’s philosophy and purpose. EAP practitioners, like most counseling psychologists, are interested in ameliorating psycho-social problems, particularly those that impair work performance. Both groups of professionals also endorse a prevention, counseling, training, and education philosophy dedicated to enhancing the effectiveness and performance of individuals and groups. Additionally, our shared interest in vocational adjustment, career development, life-span development, and the dynamics of individual and organizational interaction portends the viability of collaborative opportunities.
儘管過去有許多障礙限制了我們參與 EAP 運動的程度，EAP 與諮商心理學專業在各自的理念與目的上仍有許多相似之處。EAP 從業人員，和大多數諮商心理學家一樣，關注於改善心理社會問題，特別是那些影響工作表現的問題。這兩類專業人員皆支持以預防、諮商、訓練及教育為核心的理念，致力於提升個人與團體的效能與表現。此外，我們對職業調適、職涯發展、生命歷程發展，以及個人與組織互動動態的共同關注，也預示著雙方合作的可行性。

Given these similarities, we believe that our profession is in a unique position to contribute psychotherapeutic expertise to EAPs (Bayer, 1987, Gerstein, 1990; Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b). As the EAP field has matured, the demand for professional counselors and psychologists dually trained in the treatment of mental health and substance abuse problems has risen. Performing differential assessments has become a necessary skill for EAP providers, as has the ability to engage in counseling and short-term psychotherapy. Moreover, EAPs have been faced with the demands of quality assurance paradigms that require the provision of services by persons who have received formalized training.
鑑於這些相似之處，我們相信我們的專業處於一個獨特的位置，能為 EAPs 提供心理治療專業知識（Bayer, 1987；Gerstein, 1990；Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b）。隨著 EAP 領域的成熟，對於同時接受心理健康與物質濫用問題治療訓練的專業輔導員和心理學家的需求日益增加。進行差異性評估已成為 EAP 提供者必備的技能，諮商與短期心理治療的能力亦同樣重要。此外，EAPs 面臨品質保證模式的要求，必須由接受過正式訓練的人員提供服務。

Counseling psychology’s historical commitment to working with healthy individuals, to enhancing life-skills, to understanding individual differences, and to studying group processes can contribute to the mission of EAPs. Most workforces, especially those comprised of highly skilled employees, represent a skewed distribution of the general population. This population typically functions at a higher level of adaptation, has more innate ability, is better educated, and has greater personal resources than a clinically abnormal population. Consequently, our theories and helping strategies are probably more applicable to this population than are theories based on psychopathology and mental illness. Our literature on normal life adjustment, for instance, and our focus on skill enhancement through psycho-educational intervention has enormous utility for EAPs. The successful integration of our theories and unique interventions within an EAP context could help EAPs make the transition from an assessment based delivery system to a comprehensive evaluation and short-term counseling program.
諮商心理學歷來致力於與健康個體合作、提升生活技能、理解個體差異以及研究團體過程，這些都能為員工協助方案（EAPs）的使命做出貢獻。大多數勞動力，特別是由高技能員工組成的勞動力，代表了一種與一般人口分布不同的偏態分布。這群人通常適應能力較高，天賦較佳，受教育程度較高，且擁有比臨床異常族群更多的個人資源。因此，我們的理論和協助策略可能比基於精神病理學和心理疾病的理論更適用於這群人。例如，我們關於正常生活調適的文獻，以及透過心理教育介入來強化技能的重點，對 EAPs 具有極大的實用價值。在 EAP 環境中成功整合我們的理論和獨特介入方法，能協助 EAPs 從以評估為基礎的服務系統，轉型為全面評估與短期諮商計畫。

EAPs can also benefit from our discipline’s traditional focus on the assessment of normal individuals. A successful EAP intervention often rests upon the accuracy of the initial assessment performed by the EAP provider. Misinterpretation of the employee’s problems, misjudgment regarding the severity of the problem, or a failure to appreciate the confounding influences brought about by job stress and organizational demands can lead to inappropriate treatment initiatives and poor referral decisions. Misdiagnosis of a worker’s symptoms, for example, can result in an unnecessary hospitalization, or an inappropriate referral to a specialty provider. Obviously, clinical mistakes can compound an employee’s problems. Such mistakes can further discourage a worker who already feels impaired.
EAP 也能從我們學科傳統上對正常個體評估的專注中受益。成功的 EAP 介入往往依賴於 EAP 提供者所進行的初步評估的準確性。對員工問題的誤解、對問題嚴重程度的誤判，或未能理解工作壓力和組織需求所帶來的混淆影響，可能導致不適當的治療措施和錯誤的轉介決定。例如，對員工症狀的誤診可能導致不必要的住院治療，或不恰當地轉介至專科醫師。顯然，臨床錯誤會加劇員工的問題，並進一步打擊已感到受損的員工士氣。

We contend that EAP providers can enhance the accuracy of their interventions by incorporating into their assessment protocols some measures frequently used by counseling psychologists. Instruments like the Myers-Briggs, Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, 16 PF, Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, and MMPI (interpreted for outpatient populations) would seem helpful to EAP personnel in this regard. Counseling psychologists’ expertise with these devices could provide EAPs with additional benefits.
我們主張，EAP 提供者可以透過在評估程序中納入諮商心理學家常用的一些量表，來提升其介入的準確性。像是 Myers-Briggs、Edwards 個人偏好量表、16 PF、Strong-Campbell 興趣量表，以及針對門診族群解讀的 MMPI 等工具，對 EAP 人員而言似乎相當有幫助。諮商心理學家在這些工具上的專業知識，能為 EAP 帶來額外的助益。

As EAPs move beyond mere assessment and referral activities toward organizational advocacy, we suspect that these programs will need to address issues related to: a) job burn-out, b) the stress produced by particular work environments, c) appropriate paths of career development, and d) promoting psychologically healthy work environments. When dealing with these issues, EAPs can profit from counseling psychologists’ experience with, and literature on, vocational behavior. Our profession can offer a host of theoretical models designed to explain career choice, vocational maturity and development, work adjustment, and life-style planning to the EAP field. Conceivably, the integration of such models into EAP practice could increase the cost effectiveness of various EAP services, like prevention programming, and ultimately, could improve the quality of work-life enjoyed by members of a particular organization. EAP providers could utilize, for instance, John Holland’s (1985) vocational typology theory to assess the appropriateness of a job transfer or promotion. Such an assessment might prevent a misfit between an employee’s personality and skills and his/her new job duties or work environment.
隨著員工協助計畫（EAP）從單純的評估與轉介活動，逐步轉向組織倡導，我們推測這些計畫將需要處理與以下相關的議題：a) 工作倦怠，b) 特定工作環境所產生的壓力，c) 適當的職涯發展路徑，以及 d) 促進心理健康的工作環境。在處理這些議題時，EAP 可以從諮商心理學家在職業行為方面的經驗與文獻中獲益。我們的專業能為 EAP 領域提供多種理論模型，旨在解釋職業選擇、職業成熟與發展、工作適應以及生活型態規劃。理論上，將此類模型整合進 EAP 實務中，可能提升各種 EAP 服務（如預防方案）的成本效益，並最終改善特定組織成員的工作生活品質。例如，EAP 提供者可以利用 John Holland（1985）的職業類型理論來評估工作調動或升遷的適切性。 這樣的評估可能避免員工的個性與技能與其新工作職責或工作環境不相符。

By offering their expertise in conducting applied research to EAPs, counseling psychologists can contribute to the further development of these programs (Bayer, 1987; Gerstein, 1990; Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b). Historically, EAPs have been driven by the provision of clinical services. As such, EAP personnel have been less interested in empirical types of issues. Additionally, because sociologists have been the primary investigators affiliated with the EAP field, most of the research conducted on EAPs has been observational and quasi-experimental (Gerstein, 1990). As a result of this focus, there are large gaps in the EAP literature with respect to research initiatives often pursued by psychologists in general, and counseling psychologists, in specific. For example, the phenomena of how helping occurs in the workplace, or how persons enter the process of counseling, is just beginning to be understood, in part because of theoretical and empirical work done by counseling psychologists (Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a; Gerstein, 1990).
透過將其在應用研究方面的專業知識提供給員工協助方案（EAPs），諮商心理學家能夠促進這些方案的進一步發展（Bayer, 1987；Gerstein, 1990；Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b）。歷史上，EAPs 主要由臨床服務的提供所推動。因此，EAP 人員對於實證性議題的興趣較低。此外，由於社會學家一直是與 EAP 領域相關的主要研究者，大多數關於 EAP 的研究多為觀察性和準實驗性研究（Gerstein, 1990）。由於此一焦點，EAP 文獻中在心理學家普遍關注的研究議題，尤其是諮商心理學家所追求的研究計畫方面，存在著很大的空白。例如，工作場所中幫助如何發生的現象，或個體如何進入諮商過程，僅開始被理解，部分原因是諮商心理學家所進行的理論與實證研究（Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a；Gerstein, 1990）。

For instance, consistent with predictions derived from the By-stander-Equity Model of Supervisory Helping Behavior (Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a), our research has suggested that supervisors rely on a number of behavioral indicators (resistance, acrimoniousness, industriousness, & disaffection) to identify impaired workers (Bayer & Gerstein, 1988b). Supervisors’ recognition of these behaviors appears to be linked to their span of control, managerial status (Gerstein, Eichenhofer, Bayer, Valutis, & Jankowski, 1989; Jankowski, Gerstein & Valutis, 1989), race (Gerstein & Valutis, In Press), and participation in constructive confrontation training programs (Gerstein, Jankowski, Bayer, Eichenhofer, & Valutis, 1990). Furthermore, our research indicates that the severity of the employees’ problem is positively associated with supervisors’ willingness to engage in an EAP referral (Bayer & Gerstein, 1990; Gerstein & Besenhofer 1989; Gerstein & Duffey, 1990; Gerstein, Lynn, & Brown, In Press). A supervisor’s position in the organizational hierarchy has been found to be linked to EAP referrals as well (Gerstein & Besenhofer 1989).
例如，根據旁觀者公平模型（By-stander-Equity Model of Supervisory Helping Behavior）（Bayer & Gerstein, 1988a）的預測，我們的研究顯示主管會依據多項行為指標（抗拒、尖刻、勤奮及冷漠）來識別受損的員工（Bayer & Gerstein, 1988b）。主管對這些行為的辨識似乎與其管理範圍、管理階層（Gerstein, Eichenhofer, Bayer, Valutis, & Jankowski, 1989；Jankowski, Gerstein & Valutis, 1989）、種族（Gerstein & Valutis, 即將出版）以及參與建設性對抗訓練課程（Gerstein, Jankowski, Bayer, Eichenhofer, & Valutis, 1990）有關。此外，我們的研究指出，員工問題的嚴重程度與主管願意進行 EAP 轉介呈正相關（Bayer & Gerstein, 1990；Gerstein & Besenhofer 1989；Gerstein & Duffey, 1990；Gerstein, Lynn, & Brown, 即將出版）。主管在組織階層中的職位也被發現與 EAP 轉介有關（Gerstein & Besenhofer 1989）。

Along with conducting additional research on how helping occurs in the workplace (e.g., organizational factors related to the troubled employee identification & intervention process; the intra- & interpersonal dynamics of EAP referrals), other research projects that would be valuable for EAPs and that counseling psychologists might pursue include an examination of the: a) efficacy of internal versus external EAPs, b) effects of various forms of EAP-related training on referral behaviors, c) variables associated with the self-referral process, d) relationship between stages of career development and patterns of worker commitment, disability, and attrition; and e) adaptability of the counseling pro-
除了進一步研究職場中幫助行為的發生方式（例如，與識別及介入問題員工過程相關的組織因素；EAP 轉介的內部及人際動態）之外，對 EAP 有價值且諮商心理學家可能會進行的其他研究項目還包括檢視：a) 內部與外部 EAP 的效能，b) 各種形式的 EAP 相關訓練對轉介行為的影響，c) 與自我轉介過程相關的變項，d) 職涯發展階段與員工承諾、失能及流失模式之間的關係；以及 e) 諮商專業的適應性—
cess to situations where counselor objectivity and non-alignment are suspect.
接觸到諮商師客觀性和非結盟性受到質疑的情況。

The results of such projects may reveal unsuspected variables that are responsible for supervisory intervention, may uncover factors linked with the successful implementation of various prevention and remedial programs, and may identify variables tied to positive therapeutic outcomes. More importantly, these studies might contribute to a better understanding of the etiology of employee dysfunctions. This knowledge could be used to assist vocationally maladjusted persons sooner, and ideally, to help facilitate a more rapid return to full productivity.
此類專案的結果可能揭示出未曾預料到的變數，這些變數是主管介入的原因，亦可能發現與各種預防及補救方案成功實施相關的因素，並可能辨識出與正向治療結果相關的變數。更重要的是，這些研究或許能促進對員工功能障礙病因的更深入理解。這些知識可用於更早協助職業適應不良者，理想情況下，能幫助促進更快速地恢復全面生產力。

Our profession’s model of training has successfully prepared thousands of counselors and psychologists for work in primary and secondary schools, universities, mental health clinics, and substance abuse treatment centers. Adaptation and expansion of our fundamental curricula could provide EAPs with a workforce of high calibar psychologists and counselors with sufficient skills to perform the tasks mentioned earlier. To accomplish this training goal, we suggest that doctoral programs in counseling psychology, for instance, offer a 30 semester hour specialty or minor in EAPs. We recommend that this specialty be completed over a four year period, following the sequence of courses listed below:
我們專業的培訓模式已成功培育出數千名輔導員和心理學家，能在小學、中學、大學、心理健康診所及藥物濫用治療中心工作。若能調整並擴充我們的基礎課程，將能為員工協助計畫（EAPs）提供一支具備足夠技能、能執行前述任務的高素質心理學家與輔導員團隊。為達成此培訓目標，我們建議諸如輔導心理學博士課程，設置一個 30 學期時數的 EAP 專業或副修課程。我們建議此專業課程於四年內完成，並依照以下課程順序進行：

Year One
Introduction to Management
Introduction to Marketing
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Year Two
Introduction to EAPs
Community Psychology
Theories & Techniques of Substance Abuse
Practicum: Substance Abuse Clinic
Year Three
Brief Forms of Psychotherapy
Industrial Vocational Psychology
Field Research Methodologies (Sociology or Anthropology Courses)
Practicum: EAP
Year Four
One Year EAP Internship

In part, these courses should include information on: a) interdisciplinary models of work behavior, b) environmental factors that influence vocational behavior, c) ways to revise and expand current theories of occupa-
部分課程內容應包括：a) 跨領域的工作行為模型，b) 影響職業行為的環境因素，c) 修訂與擴展現有職業理論的方法—
tional adjustment, d) brief forms of counseling, e) models of consultation, program evaluation, administration, and human resource management, f) field research methodologies, g) the etiology and treatment of substance abuse, h) the history and structure of EAPs, and i) marketing, financing, and business management (Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b). Practica should train students to use brief forms of therapy with a variety of clientele (e.g., substance abusers, persons with family problems). They should also provide students with an opportunity to conduct EAP training programs for supervisors and employees. Finally, the year long internship at an EAP ought to offer students various clinical and administrative experiences. We should mention that one EAP (Contact Inc., Tempe, Arizona) has recently received approval as an accredited American Psychological Association Internship site. Hopefully, other EAPs will pursue this form of accreditation.
tional adjustment、d) 簡短形式的諮商、e) 諮詢模式、方案評估、管理及人力資源管理、f) 實地研究方法論、g) 物質濫用的病因與治療、h) EAP 的歷史與結構，以及 i) 行銷、融資與企業管理（Gerstein & Bayer, 1988a, 1988b）。實習課程應訓練學生使用簡短形式的治療，面對各種不同的個案（例如，物質濫用者、有家庭問題者）。同時，也應提供學生機會，進行針對主管與員工的 EAP 培訓課程。最後，為期一年的 EAP 實習應讓學生獲得多元的臨床與行政經驗。我們應該提及，位於亞利桑那州坦佩的 Contact Inc. EAP 最近已獲得美國心理學會認可為實習機構。期望其他 EAP 也能追求此種認證。

Throughout this paper we have argued that counseling psychologists are well suited to perform various tasks linked to EAPs. We should also mention that we believe that counseling psychologists can make other contributions at the workplace as trainers, consultants, evaluators, and as members of health, human resources, personnel, and wellness departments. In this paper, we have also suggested that EAPs can profit from a closer working alliance with members of our profession. While members of the other helping professions are also capable of influencing EAPs, we believe that counselors and counseling psychologists can make a unique contribution in this setting. Unlike the industrial social work profession that has focused on various worker benefits and generic counseling programs, and the discipline of clinical psychology that has applied mental health models to the work community, the field of counseling can offer EAPs and businesses a model of human behavior that is developmental, concerned with normal intra- and inter-personal processes, and clearly grounded in vocational behavior. Moreover, our profession’s commitment to a rigorous graduate training model can offer EAPs and the corporate world a paradigm that is designed to integrate practical considerations with theoretical and empirical observations. In other words, our discipline can provide a structure that is based in theory and research, and also responsive to the demands of applying knowledge in the industrial community.
在本文中，我們主張諮商心理學家非常適合執行與員工協助計畫（EAPs）相關的各種任務。我們也應該提到，我們相信諮商心理學家能在職場中以訓練師、顧問、評估者，以及健康、人力資源、員工管理和健康促進部門成員的身份，做出其他貢獻。本文同時建議，EAPs 可以從與我們專業成員建立更緊密的合作關係中獲益。雖然其他助人專業的成員也能影響 EAPs，但我們相信諮商師和諮商心理學家在此環境中能做出獨特的貢獻。與專注於各種員工福利和通用諮商計畫的產業社會工作專業，以及將心理健康模式應用於工作社群的臨床心理學領域不同，諮商領域能為 EAPs 和企業提供一套發展性的人類行為模型，關注正常的個人內在及人際過程，並明確根植於職業行為。 此外，我們專業對嚴謹研究所培訓模式的承諾，能為員工協助方案（EAP）及企業界提供一個範例，該範例旨在整合實務考量與理論及實證觀察。換言之，我們的學科能提供一個以理論與研究為基礎，且能回應在產業界應用知識需求的架構。

Although the profession of counseling psychology has the potential of making some important contributions to the EAP field, the likelihood of this happening remains questionable. Members of our profession prefer to be employed in more traditional counseling work environments
儘管諮商心理學專業有潛力對 EAP 領域做出重要貢獻，但這種可能性仍然值得懷疑。我們專業的成員較偏好受僱於較傳統的諮商工作環境。
(e.g., community mental health centers, university counseling centers, private practices) that value non-vocationally related job activities (e.g., individual, group, & family psychotherapy). Ironically, in order for this situation to change, counseling psychologists will have to once again appreciate the importance of various aspects of vocational behavior. The economic and political forces in the social service marketplace might stimulate such an appreciation. Apparently, the 4 th party, including EAPs, HMOs, and PPOs, is playing an even more dominant role in this marketplace than was originally expected. This increases the possibility that eventually a large number of human service providers will be affiliated with workplaces that refer clients for assistance with psychological as well as vocational difficulties. Hopefully, counseling psychologists will foresee this emerging reality in the near future, so that they can define their own unique role in the EAP community.
（例如，社區心理健康中心、大學諮商中心、私人執業）重視非職業相關的工作活動（例如，個別、團體及家庭心理治療）。諷刺的是，為了改變這種情況，諮商心理學家必須再次重視職業行為的各個面向。社會服務市場中的經濟與政治力量可能會促使這種重視。顯然，第四方，包括員工協助計畫（EAPs）、健康維護組織（HMOs）和優先提供組織（PPOs），在此市場中扮演的角色比原先預期的更為主導。這增加了未來大量人力服務提供者將與工作場所合作，為客戶提供心理及職業困難協助的可能性。希望諮商心理學家能預見這一即將出現的現實，從而在員工協助計畫社群中定義自己獨特的角色。

Bayer, G. (1987). An investigation of the construct validity of the Behavioral Index of Troubled Employees (BITE). Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Ball State University. Muncie, Indiana.
Bayer, G. (1987)。行為指標困擾員工（BITE）建構效度之研究。未出版博士論文。巴爾州立大學。印第安納州芒西。
Bayer, G., & Gerstein, L. (1990). EAP referrals & troubled employees: An analogue study of supervisors’ decisions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 36, 304-319.
Bayer, G., & Gerstein, L. (1990)。EAP 轉介與問題員工：主管決策的類比研究。《職業行為期刊》，36，304-319。
Bayer, G. & Gerstein, L. (1988a). An adaptation of models of prosocial behavior to supervisor interventions with troubled employees. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 23-37.
Bayer, G. & Gerstein, L. (1988a)。將利他行為模型調適於主管對問題員工的介入。《應用社會心理學期刊》，18，23-37。
Bayer, G. & Gerstein, L. (1988b). Supervisory attitudes toward impaired workers: A factor analytic study of the Behavioral Index of Troubled Employees (BITE). Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 24, 413-422.
Bayer, G. & Gerstein, L. (1988b)。主管對受損員工的態度：問題員工行為指標（BITE）的因素分析研究。《應用行為科學期刊》，24，413-422。
Foley, R., & Redfering, D. (1987). Bridging the gap between counseling psychologists and organization development consultants. Journal of Business & Psychology, 2, 160-170.
Foley, R., & Redfering, D. (1987)。架起諮商心理學家與組織發展顧問之間的橋樑。《商業與心理學期刊》，2，160-170。
Gerstein, L. (1990). The Bystander-Equity Model of Supervisory Helping Behavior: Past & future research on the prevention of employee problems. In P. Roman (Ed.), Alcohol problem intervention in the workplace: Employee assistance programs and strategic alternatives. N.Y.: Quorum Press. (pp. 203-225).
Gerstein, L. (1990)。監督者幫助行為的旁觀者公平模型：過去與未來關於預防員工問題的研究。收錄於 P. Roman（編），《職場中的酒精問題介入：員工協助計畫與策略替代方案》。紐約：Quorum Press。（頁 203-225）。
Gerstein, L., & Bayer, G. (1988a). Psychology and the future of EAP research. Paper presented as part of a symposium entitled, “The future of Employee Assistance Programs: An interdisciplinary perspective,” (Chairs L.H. Gerstein & G.A. Bayer) at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta, Georgia.
Gerstein, L. 與 Bayer, G. (1988a)。心理學與員工協助計畫研究的未來。於美國心理學會年會（喬治亞州亞特蘭大）以「員工協助計畫的未來：跨學科視角」為題之研討會（主席 L.H. Gerstein 與 G.A. Bayer）發表論文。
Gerstein, L., & Bayer, G. (1988b). Employee Assistance Programs: A systemic investigation of their use. Journal of Counseling & Development, 66, 294-297.
Gerstein, L. 與 Bayer, G. (1988b)。員工協助計畫：其使用情況的系統性調查。《諮商與發展期刊》，66，294-297。
Gerstein, L. & Besenhofer, R. (1989). Substance abuse & the EAP referral process: Characteristics of supervisors, employees, & EAPs. Paper presented at the NIDA “Drugs in the Workplace: Research & Evaluation Data,” Conference, Rockville, MD.
Gerstein, L. 與 Besenhofer, R. (1989)。物質濫用與員工協助計畫轉介過程：主管、員工與員工協助計畫的特徵。於 NIDA「職場藥物：研究與評估資料」會議（馬里蘭州羅克維爾）發表論文。
Gerstein, L., & Duffey, K. (1990). Workers with AIDS: Do hypothetical supervisors make EAP referrals? Under Review.
Gerstein, L., & Duffey, K. (1990)。感染愛滋病的勞工：假設的主管會推薦員工協助方案嗎？審核中。
Gerstein, L., Eichenhofer, D., Bayer, G., Valutis, W., & Jankowski, J. (1989). EAP referral training and supervisors’ beliefs about troubled workers. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 4, (4), 15-30.
Gerstein, L., Eichenhofer, D., Bayer, G., Valutis, W., & Jankowski, J. (1989)。員工協助方案推薦訓練與主管對有困擾員工的信念。《員工協助季刊》，4（4），15-30。
Gerstein, L., Jankowski, J., Bayer, G., Eichenhofer, D., & Valutis, W. (1990). Supervisory characteristics and beliefs about troubled employees. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 5, (4), 49-62.
Gerstein, L., Jankowski, J., Bayer, G., Eichenhofer, D., & Valutis, W. (1990)。主管特質與對有困擾員工的信念。《員工協助季刊》，5（4），49-62。

Gerstein, L., Lynn, D., & Brown, P. (In Press). Type of setting, employee substance abuse, & hypothetical supervisors’ EAP referrals. Journal of Drug Issues.
Gerstein, L., Lynn, D., & Brown, P.（即將出版）。環境類型、員工藥物濫用與假設主管的員工協助方案推薦。《藥物議題期刊》。
Gerstein, L., & Valutis, W. (In Press). Racial differences related to potential helpers’ impressions of impaired workers. J. of Multicultural Counseling & Development.
Gerstein, L., & Valutis, W.（即將出版）。與潛在幫助者對受損工作者印象相關的種族差異。《多元文化諮商與發展期刊》。
Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Englewood Cliffs: N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Holland, J.（1985）。《職業選擇：職業人格與工作環境理論》。新澤西州恩格爾伍德克利夫斯：Prentice-Hall。
Jankowski, J., Gerstein, L., & Valutis, W. (1989). The blues and whites: Staff members’ impressions of troubled workers. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Jankowski, J., Gerstein, L., & Valutis, W.（1989）。藍領與白領：員工對困擾工作者的印象。於美國心理學會年會發表論文，新奧爾良，路易斯安那州。
Oberer, D., & Lee, S. (1986). The counseling psychologist in business and industry: Ethical concerns. Journal of Business and Psychology, 1, 148-162.
Oberer, D., & Lee, S.（1986）。企業與產業中的諮商心理師：倫理議題。《商業與心理學期刊》，1，148-162。
Osipow, S. (1982). Counseling psychology: Applications in the world of work. The Counseling Psychologist, 10, (3), 19-25.
Osipow, S. (1982)。諮商心理學：在職場中的應用。《諮商心理學家》，10（3），19-25。
Roman, P., & Blum, T. (1985). The core technology of Employee Assistance Programs. The ALMACAN, 15, 8-12.
Roman, P.，& Blum, T. (1985)。員工協助計畫的核心技術。《ALMACAN》，15，8-12。
Toomer, J. (1982). Counseling psychologists in business and industry. The Counseling Psychologist, 10 (3), 9-18.
Toomer, J. (1982)。企業與產業中的諮商心理學家。《諮商心理學家》，10（3），9-18。
Trice, H., & Roman, P. (1978). Spirits and demons at work: Alcohol and other drugs on the job. (Rev. ed.), N.Y.: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University.
Trice, H.，& Roman, P. (1978)。工作中的靈魂與惡魔：酒精與其他職場藥物。（修訂版），紐約：康乃爾大學紐約州工業與勞動關係學院。