Unlike other chapters in this text, our tour of Buddhism will be primarily descriptive. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to describe in a broad and general way the basic history, beliefs, practices, and ideas within Classic Buddhism. Thus, normative “evaluation” of these ideas will be forestalled for the sake of a basic understanding of the original Buddhist traditions. For this reason, this chapter will appear more as a religious-studies type of overview than a philosophical analysis of those basic ideas. В отличие от других глав этого текста, наше знакомство с буддизмом будет в основном описательным. Главная цель этой главы — в широком и общем виде описать основную историю, верования, практики и идеи классического буддизма. Поэтому нормативная «оценка» этих идей будет отложена ради базового понимания изначальных буддийских традиций. По этой причине эта глава будет скорее обзором в стиле религиоведческого исследования, чем философским анализом этих основных идей.
When one approaches Buddhism after studying many of the other major religious traditions in the world, one needs to be prepared for some significant surprises. Many aspects of Buddhism will seem familiar. Buddhists, like Christians or Muslims, tell a story about the founder of their tradition. His name is Siddhartha <Sid-art-ha> Goutama <Gout-emma>. He lived in Northern India and was probably born in 566 B.C. (Scholars are not exactly sure what year he was born.) He was eventually known to his followers as The Buddha, or the “Awakened One.” Like Jesus and Muhammad, he developed a distinctive response to the religious problems of his day, and he started a religious movement that now spans the globe, from India and Southeast Asia to China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan; and, in the last 120 years, Buddhism has become a strong presence in Europe, North America and other parts of the world. One might ask: How does Buddha as a founder of a tradition differ from other founders of religious traditions? Когда человек обращается к буддизму после изучения многих других крупных религиозных традиций мира, ему следует быть готовым к некоторым значительным неожиданностям. Многие аспекты буддизма покажутся знакомыми. Буддисты, как и христиане или мусульмане, рассказывают историю о основателе своей традиции. Его имя — Сиддхартха Гаутама. Он жил в Северной Индии и, вероятно, родился в 566 году до н.э. (учёные точно не уверены в годе его рождения). Впоследствии его последователи стали называть его Буддой, или «Пробуждённым». Как Иисус и Мухаммед, он разработал особый ответ на религиозные проблемы своего времени и основал религиозное движение, которое теперь охватывает весь мир — от Индии и Юго-Восточной Азии до Китая, Тибета, Кореи и Японии; а за последние 120 лет буддизм стал сильным явлением в Европе, Северной Америке и других частях света. Можно задать вопрос: чем Будда как основатель традиции отличается от других основателей религиозных традиций?
Jesus and Muhammad brought messages, as if they were people communicating messages from divine reality that their followers were meant to heed and respond to. The Buddha, unlike Jesus and Muhammad, serves more as an example. He does not give us a divine message. He gives us an example of human living that we are invited to follow in order to achieve a goal similar to the goal that he achieved in his own lifetime. The Buddha also put together a community of followers, like other founders of significant religious traditions. In his case, it was an order of monks and nuns who passed on a tradition of Buddhist learning and practice, sort of like what the Christian monks and nuns did in Europe during the Middle Ages. In our studies we are going to want to get an understanding and sense of how this order of monks and nuns operated and how they established relationships to kings, queens, princes, and all of the ordinary lay-people that comprise Buddhist society. Иисус и Мухаммед приносили послания, как будто они были людьми, передающими сообщения от божественной реальности, которым их последователи должны были внимать и на которые должны были отвечать. Будда, в отличие от Иисуса и Мухаммеда, служит скорее примером. Он не даёт нам божественного послания. Он даёт нам пример человеческой жизни, которому нас приглашают следовать, чтобы достичь цели, похожей на ту, которую он достиг в своей жизни. Будда также создал сообщество последователей, как и другие основатели значимых религиозных традиций. В его случае это был орден монахов и монахинь, которые передавали традицию буддийского учения и практики, что-то вроде того, что делали христианские монахи и монахини в Европе в Средние века. В наших исследованиях мы захотим понять и почувствовать, как этот орден монахов и монахинь функционировал и как они устанавливали отношения с королями, королевами, принцами и всеми обычными мирянами, составляющими буддийское общество.
Buddhists also have very familiar patterns of ritual and worship. They go on pilgrimages to important shrines and monasteries. These pilgrimages are not unlike the pilgrimages in other traditions; some Christians go on Буддисты также имеют очень знакомые модели ритуалов и поклонения. Они совершают паломничества к важным святыням и монастырям. Эти паломничества не сильно отличаются от паломничеств в других традициях; некоторые христиане совершают
pilgrimages to sites in Eastern Europe. And, as should be noted, Hindu culture is filled with a plethora of holy sites, shrines, and places of worship. паломничества к местам в Восточной Европе. И, как следует отметить, индуистская культура наполнена множеством святых мест, святынь и мест поклонения.
Buddhists also teach people how to confront and deal with some of the deepest questions in human life, not unlike people in other religious traditions. The Buddhists are concerned with issues that confront all of us as human beings. They are concerned with questions like: What will happen to me when I die? How does one achieve peace, compassion, and meaning within human life. How should one avoid suffering? Buddhists have distinctive answers to such questions .All of these are familiar questions, encountered in many traditions. Some aspects of Buddhism challenge our understanding of religion. Буддисты также учат людей, как противостоять и справляться с одними из самых глубоких вопросов человеческой жизни, подобно людям в других религиозных традициях. Буддисты озабочены вопросами, которые стоят перед каждым из нас как перед человеком. Их волнуют такие вопросы, как: Что со мной случится после смерти? Как достичь мира, сострадания и смысла в человеческой жизни? Как следует избегать страданий? У буддистов есть особые ответы на такие вопросы. Все эти вопросы знакомы и встречаются во многих традициях. Некоторые аспекты буддизма ставят под сомнение наше понимание религии.
A standard dictionary definition of religion-for example, Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary-defines religion as “the service and adoration of God or a god expressed in forms of worship.” If most people were asked to write down, in a very intuitive way, what religion is-the term “God” would most likely appear in the definition. Some forms of Buddhism do worship gods. Gods, for some, are part of Buddhists life. Gods can be important in certain aspects of Buddhist ritual. However, just about all forms of Buddhism deny the existence of one single almighty, powerful God who created the world. The Buddha is simply a human being just like us. He confronted many of life’s difficulties and worked out a human response to them. When we study Buddhism as part of the religious traditions of the world, we have to entertain the possibility that religion can be configured, at a very deep level, without a concern for a creator God. As indicated by the dictionary definition, this will challenge what many believe religion is (or should be) all about. Instead of specifically seeking questions about an almighty creator God, Buddhists are more likely to ask questions like: What is ultimate reality like? What does it mean for something to be ultimately real? How can I know ultimate reality? Does ultimate reality Love me? Стандартное словарное определение религии — например, из Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary — определяет религию как «служение и поклонение Богу или божеству, выраженное в формах культа». Если бы большинство людей попросили интуитивно записать, что такое религия, в определении, скорее всего, появилось бы слово «Бог». Некоторые формы буддизма действительно поклоняются богам. Для некоторых богов являются частью жизни буддистов. Боги могут играть важную роль в определённых аспектах буддийского ритуала. Однако почти все формы буддизма отрицают существование единого всемогущего, могущественного Бога, создавшего мир. Будда — просто человек, такой же, как мы. Он столкнулся со многими жизненными трудностями и выработал человеческий ответ на них. Изучая буддизм как часть религиозных традиций мира, мы должны допустить возможность того, что религия может быть устроена на очень глубоком уровне без заботы о Боге-создателе. Как указано в словарном определении, это бросает вызов тому, что многие считают сутью религии (или тем, чем она должна быть). Вместо того чтобы специально искать вопросы о всемогущем создателе Боге, буддисты скорее задаются вопросами типа: Какова истинная реальность? Что значит, что что-то является истинно реальным? Как я могу познать истинную реальность? Любит ли меня истинная реальность?
Another aspect of Buddhism that will be surprising and challenging to many has to do with the nature of the self. Many traditions emphasize the importance of an immortal soul. For the Hindu, a great amount of attention is given to the soul; identifying the nature of the immortal soul and finding some way to separate that soul from the confusion of ordinary, everyday experience is one of the crucial goals of human life according to Hinduism. This is not so for Buddhism. Другой аспект буддизма, который будет неожиданным и сложным для многих, связан с природой «я». Многие традиции подчеркивают важность бессмертной души. Для индуиста большое внимание уделяется душе; определение природы бессмертной души и поиск способа отделить эту душу от путаницы обычного, повседневного опыта — одна из ключевых целей человеческой жизни согласно индуизму. В буддизме это не так.
Buddhists compare the human “self” or personality to a river: It is constantly flowing. Another common Buddhist image of the self is a flame or fire that is constantly burning. The soul itself is not eternal, it does not endure. It is part of a constant changing process. The idea of an immortal soul is an illusion that we human beings impose, out of our own psychological fears and needs, on a process of constant change. Buddhists ideas about “the self” Буддисты сравнивают человеческое «я» или личность с рекой: оно постоянно течёт. Другой распространённый буддийский образ «я» — это пламя или огонь, который постоянно горит. Душа сама по себе не вечна, она не сохраняется. Она является частью постоянного процесса изменений. Идея бессмертной души — это иллюзия, которую мы, люди, навязываем, исходя из собственных психологических страхов и потребностей, процессу постоянных изменений. Буддийские представления о «я»
actually challenge most people’s basic assumptions and questions like: “What am I really?” or “Who am I really?” or “How can I develop my full potential as a human being?” фактически ставят под сомнение основные предположения большинства людей и вопросы вроде: «Кто я на самом деле?» или «Что я на самом деле?» или «Как я могу развить свой полный потенциал как человек?»
What is true for human beings is, of course, true of Buddhism itself. Like everything else in the world, Buddhism is constantly changing. There are many different types of Buddhism. This leads one to ask: What is Buddhism? What remains constant, if anything, for all forms of Buddhism? То, что верно для человека, конечно же, верно и для самого буддизма. Как и всё в мире, буддизм постоянно меняется. Существует множество различных видов буддизма. Это заставляет задуматься: что такое буддизм? Что остаётся неизменным, если вообще что-то остаётся, для всех форм буддизма?
In approaching Buddhism it becomes difficult to organize a systematic approach to the subject matter. Here, we can take our cue from Buddhists themselves. The most basic Buddhist expression of faith is called “the triple refuge.” При изучении буддизма становится трудно организовать систематический подход к предмету. Здесь мы можем взять пример с самих буддистов. Самое основное выражение буддийской веры называется «тройным прибежищем».
"I take refuge in the Buddha; Я прибегаю к убежищу Будды;
I take refuge in the Dharma (i.e., the Buddha’s teachings); Я прибегаю к убежищу Дхармы (то есть учений Будды);
I take refuge in the Samgha" <song-ga> (i.e., the community of the Buddha’s disciples). Я прибегаю к убежищу Сангхи <song-ga> (то есть сообщества учеников Будды).
We shall begin our exploration of Buddhism by looking at each of the refuges. We shall start, of course, with the Buddha himself, the awakened one who set the traditions in motion.
The Buddha, as many people know, is often depicted as sitting in a very serene posture, with his feet crossed in front of him and his hands folded in his lap. In traditional Yoga, this is called “the Lotus posture.” It is the very picture of calm contemplation. This is the classic image of the Buddha. And it is the image that has drawn many people to the Buddha for many centuries. It conveys his experience of his awakening, the experience that Buddhists try to experience themselves. So, this image is in some sense a useful starting point for exploring Buddhism. The image exudes calm and contemplation, which is a useful point of departure. The Buddha is an image of calmness and serenity in a confused and distracting world.
The Buddha, of course, did not remain in the Lotus posture his whole life. He had to get up and walk all over Northern India, talk to people, teach, and put together the founding community that carried his teachings over time and to the present day. The major events in the Buddha’s life took place in a region known as the Madhyadesha (or the middle region of the Ganges basin in Northern India). These sites are still the focus of religious pilgrimages today.
The second refuge has to do with the Buddha’s Dharma or “teaching.” This teaching is often expressed in a doctrinal formula known as the “Four Nobel Truths.”
1. The truth of suffering.
2. The Origin of Suffering. 2. Происхождение страдания.
3. The cessation of Suffering (Nirvana)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering. 4. Истина пути к прекращению страдания.
(These will be discussed in detail after we discuss the life of the Buddha.) (Эти вопросы будут подробно рассмотрены после того, как мы обсудим жизнь Будды.)
Later in this chapter we will be concerned with the community of followers that banded together after the death of the Buddha. Including monasticism and a cannon of Buddhist scripture. All of these issues have shaped Buddhism from ancient times to the present age. After laying the foundations for our study of Buddhism, we will trace the development of Buddhism through India, Southeast Asia, Tibet, China, and Japan. Позже в этой главе мы сосредоточимся на сообществе последователей, объединившихся после смерти Будды. Включая монашество и канон буддийских писаний. Все эти вопросы формировали буддизм с древних времен до настоящего времени. После того как мы заложим основы для нашего изучения буддизма, мы проследим развитие буддизма через Индию, Юго-Восточную Азию, Тибет, Китай и Японию.
It might be helpful to mention a few of the major movements that we shall encounter as we trace the tradition through a geographical trajectory. In India itself there were two major reform movements that appeared in early Buddhist history that changed the face of the tradition. The first of these was called “the Mahayana” or “Great Vehicle” that emerged sort-of mysteriously around the year 1 A.D. This movement involved a massive reorganization of basic Buddhist values. The 2^("nd ")2^{\text {nd }} movement was called “Tantra.” The word “Tantra” is ambiguous, but we can think of it as meaning “power” because the Tantra tradition has to do with accumulating power and using it to serve the interests of humanity. We will explore these traditions too.
As Buddhism developed and was transmitted to other countries, it developed in some striking ways. Buddhism was carried to Sri Lanka in the 3^("rd ")3^{\text {rd }} century A.D. From Sir Lanka it spread through much of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. While there isn’t much Buddhism in Indonesia today, some of the most magnificent Buddhist temples and structures / monuments have been preserved, such as the Borobudur in Java <Boor-O-bO-door>. From Indonesia, Buddhism spread through Southeast Asia expanding through Burma and Thailand. Buddhism entered China in the 2^("nd ")2^{\text {nd }} century A.D. carried North across the silk road, through the great Himalayas through Afghanistan across the silk road into Northern China. China had its own traditions and Buddhism was a foreign element in the initial phase of its reception. However, Chinese Taoism (Daoism) shares some key affinities with Buddhism, thus helping it take root in that region. Once Buddhism flowed into the mainstream of China, it took hold and developed in its own unique way. The Chinese form of Buddhism was carried over to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
In the 8^("th ")8^{\text {th }} century Buddhism was carried across the Himalayas from India into Tibet. Today, the Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso, 1935-Present) who is the leader of the Tibetan Buddhist community is one of the most visible and active Buddhist leaders in the world. In many ways he is a living symbol not only of Tibetan Buddhism, but of Buddhism itself. While Tibet is a small country, Tibetan Buddhism is one of the most prestigious and powerful Buddhist communities in the world. This has partly to do with its intellectual sophistication, as well as its ritual drama. To many it is an attractive and colorful form of Buddhism.
Buddhism has had a tremendous impact upon Western culture-particularly in literature, aesthetics, and meditation. Buddhism is an endlessly rich topic, but the current chapter shall serve as an introductory survey. For many, Buddhism is an opportunity for a new experience. Buddhism differs, in many ways, in its approach to basic questions concerning human life. Buddhism can help us understand religion and human nature. Buddhism is sensitive to the sacredness of human life and experience. It asks us to conceive new conceptions of religion, self, reality, etc. Key concepts are not mediated through “God.” So Buddhism suggests alternatives to the monotheistic attitudes. It has a strong emphasis upon mindfulness and the interrelatedness of beings. Buddhists values can help us orient ourselves towards our inner-most being.
The Life Of The Buddha
The most natural question to ask when approaching Buddhism is: Who was the Buddah? Who was that man? Who set the whole religious tradition in motion? What is the relation between the life-story of the person called “Buddha” and the people who call themselves “Buddhists?” We shall (1) tell the story of the Buddha’s Life, and (2) reflect on how that story has been mirrored in the lives of those people who call themselves Buddhists throughout many communities.
Historically, we have only a few facts about the Buddha and his life. We know, or think we know, that he was born in the family of King Shuddhodana <show doo-da-na> and Queen Maya in, roughly 556 B.C. (–although scholars debate the exact date of his birth). He is from a kingdom in Northern India in a region that is today Southern Nepal. He was a member of the Shakya <Shock-yaa> tribe. His clan name was Gautama <Gout-e-ma> and his given name was Siddhartha <Sid-art-ta> (which means “Goal Achieved or Mission Accomplished”). It has been common in the Buddhist world to call him “Siddhartha Gautama,” or even more commonly as “Shakyamuni” <shock-ya-moon-eee>, meaning “the sage of the Shakya clan.”
So, just these historical facts imply that the Buddha was not a figure of someone’s imagination, but rather that he was a real man. He was a real human being who walked the dusty roads of India about 2,500 years ago, at a time when India, like so many important regions around the world, was going through a process of religious ferment. But these historical facts do not tell us too much about the Buddha, such as what he did or what he has meant to his followers in the Buddhist tradition.
To learn what the Buddha has meant to the Buddhist tradition, we need to turn to the stories (real or imagined) told by Buddhists and look at the Buddha through Buddhists’ eyes. To tell the story of the Buddha the way that Buddhists tell it we have to begin not with his birth, but with his previous births. The Buddhist tradition arose at a time when the doctrine of reincarnation was a basic axiom and assumption of Indian religious life. It was assumed that human beings did not live just one life and then go on to some sort of reckoning in an afterlife. Rather, they cycled around again and again in a continuous process of death and rebirth. This process was called “Samsara,” the cycle of death and rebirth. The word “Samsara” means “to wander from one life to the next” (potentially without end).
It can be asked: How would one feel about an endless cycle of life in this world? Or, even endless rebirths in worlds that are worse and more unpleasant than this one? In ancient India, the process of Samsara was not thought of as a particularly appealing ideal. The feeling that comes with raised hopes and hopes dashed is sort-of like the feeling that gets associated with Samsara. Samsara brings you back into this world with many possibilities. And many hopes and dreams. But in living out life in this world, those hopes and dreams meet great frustration (–namely, death and rebirth in another life). So the religious sages of India sought to find a way out of Samsara. The idea was not to come back to this world and enjoy its pleasures once again; but rather, to find a way to bring the cycle of Samsara to a definitive conclusion.
People assumed in India that someone as important as the Buddha must have prepared for the possibility through an enormous number of previous lives. This would be possible by studying under previous Buddhas, and practicing all of the virtues that would come to such glorious fruition in his final life as the Buddha.
The stories of the Buddha’s previous lives are told in a body of texts known today as the “Jataka” <jot - a - ka>meaning “birth tales.” The body of birth tales are quite large and would occupy a whole shelf on a book rack. Some of the tales are very simple and even child-like. For example, one of the “Jataka” or birth-tales goes as follows:
Once upon a time there were three animals, a monkey, an elephant, and a partridge. The three began to discuss which one of them was the oldest. (The oldest would have
been the one deserving of special respect and treatment.) The elephant pointed to a gigantic fig-tree that was as big as a large cathedral and said: “I am so old that when I was a little elephant I could walk over this fig tree and its leaves would not even touch my body!” Then the Monkey said: "Well, you may be very old, but when I was a young monkey I could pluck the top leaves of the Figtree by just reaching upwards. And then the Partridge spoke and said: “When I was young I ate a seed. It passed through my body and fell to the ground. And then it grew into that fig tree.” So then the elephant and the monkey bowed down and paid homage to the Partridge.
The tale ends as most Jataka tales end, with “And I, the Buddha, was that partridge.” Technically, the being who appeared as the partridge was not actually the Buddha himself. He did not become the Buddha until the life when he was born as Siddhartha Gautama.
Buddhists refer to the partridge as a “bodhisattva” <boodie-saat-va>–a Buddha to be, or a future Buddha. A Bodhisattva is someone who is on their way to being a Buddha in some future life. Buddhists have to grapple with what it means to be a bodhisattva, persons on their way to being a Buddha in some future life.
Now, when Siddhartha Gautama’s career as a bodhisattva was near its end, he was born as the son of King Shuddhodana <show doo-da-na> and Queen Maya. The story of his birth is filled with miraculous signs. According to tradition, the future Buddha sprang from his mother’s side, took seven steps to the North and announced in a commanding voice: “I am the best of the world, this is my last birth, and I will never be born again.” This, of course, was very unusual, even for ancient India. This miraculous event got the attention of his father, as you can imagine. The king called in the court sages and asked them to explain what these miraculous events meant. They saw that there was wheels inscribed on Siddhartha’s hands and on the soles of his feet.
The sages told his father that he was destined to be a “Chakravartin” <chuck-ree-var-tin>-a turner of wheels. The wheels could mean either that he was going to turn the wheels of conquest around India and become a great king; or, he was going to turn the wheel of religious teachings and become a great sage. Either way, the wheel was a symbol of his status as a so called “Mahapurusha” <Mu-ha-purusha>, a great person.
The eight spoke wheel of the Buddhist teaching is still used a sign or symbol of Buddhism today. Siddhartha’s father tried to protect him from the suffering of the world in the hope that he would not choose the somewhat dishonorable and disreputable option of being a religious sage. For a while, according to the story, he was successful. Siddhartha got married and had children. He seems to be content with a sheltered life in the Palace. But one day he was riding through a public park, outside of the palace, and saw four sites: A sick person, an old person, a wondering ascetic, and a corpse. According to the story, he was shocked by this vision of suffering.
It came to him as a shock. It was not something he was used to seeing. It shocked him and stopped him in his tracks. At that point, he decided to become an ascetic himself.
His process of leaving the palace-shaving his head, giving away all of his possessions, taking up the robes and begging bowl of a wondering monk is also a crucial aspect of the life of a monk. It functions in many of the countries of Southeast Asia as a coming of age ceremony. And it is reenacted whenever a person decides to leave ordinary life to become a monk or nun.
As a monk, Siddhartha did not find immediate success. According to the legends that are told of his life within Buddhist tradition, he joined a group of other ascetics (who were also confronting the problems of old age, suffering, and sickness). As part of acetic practices of the time, Siddhartha tried to solve his problems by practicing extreme asceticism. He starved himself to near death and became nothing but skin and bones. There are some extraordinary powerful Buddhist images of this phase of his life that show him with his eyes sunk deep in their sockets and his veins standing out over the bones on his rib cage. It certainly wasn’t a particularly pleasant time for the Buddha and it did not bring him the result he wanted. So, he accepted a bowl of rice pudding from a young woman and withdrew into a style of life that the Buddhist tradition calls “The Middle Path.”
The concept of The Middle Path is another one of these key ideas that grows right out of the legendary telling of the story of the Buddha. It colors every aspect of the Buddhist life. The point is to avoid two extremes: (1) The extreme of self-denial (like the self-denial that Siddhartha experienced when he nearly starved himself to death); and, (2), the extreme of self-indulgence. And these extremes apply not just to the way people live, as was true in the story of Siddhartha, but also in the way they think-especially in respect to the way they think of themselves.
Buddhists constantly ask: What do we mean when we use the word “self?” And while the sages disagree on how to formulate an exact answer to that question, the answers that are offered always involve the avoidance of two extremes: you can’t affirm the self too much; you can’t attribute too much permanent identity to the self; and you also cannot deny the self too much, because it needs to be taken seriously in order to pursue a religious life like that of the Buddha.
Now, once Siddhartha found the Middle Path, things began to move more quickly for him. He sat down under the famous and infamous “Bodhitree”-the tree of his awakening. It is also a symbol for awakening and for fixed meditation. While meditating under the Bodhitree, Siddhartha was tempted by the evil Mara, who in the Buddhist tradition is the personification of death. Mara sent an army of women to seduce Siddhartha, but he was unmoved.
She then sent another army to attack him or to get him to join up with them for battle. Yet he was unmoved. The armies are metaphors for distractions that would disrupt his meditation. Siddhartha resisted these temptations and Mara was defeated. This is one of the most important iconic gestures in Buddhist sculpturing and iconography. It is known as the “Earth-Touching” gesture. In this image, Buddha touches the earth and it shakes to bear witness to the solidity of his meditation. The image also implies his resolve to defeat the forces of death and rebirth.
Once Mara is defeated, Siddhartha Gautama passes through several stages of meditation, ending in a final stage where he gains insight into what causes suffering and how one can bring it to an end. This is the moment when we can properly call Siddhartha “The Buddha” or “The Awakened One.” Many people use the phrase “The Enlightened One.” This is common. However, many think that it is inaccurate and misleading as a translation. Buddhists say that a Buddha is someone who has awakened from the dream of ignorance and whose wisdom has blossomed like a flower. When Siddhartha became a Buddha, he also achieved the stage or goal that Buddhists call “Nirvana.” According to the tradition, only a Buddha can know what Nirvana is or is like. For the rest of us, we have to grasp its literal meaning, namely, “to extinguish or to blow out” (like blowing out the flame of a candle).
A Buddha is someone who not only knows the causes of suffering, but has also extinguished them. He no longer suffers from the ignorance and desire that feed the fire of death and rebirth. Tradition tells us that the Buddha was tempted to stay under the tree of his awakening and enjoy the bliss of Nirvana. But, instead, he got up and walked to the city of Sarnath <Sar-Not> and he taught about his awakening to a group of ascetic monks. This, in the Buddhist tradition, is called “The First Turning of the Wheel of the Law” (of Dharma).
This teaching represents the beginning of the Buddhist tradition. It is represented in Buddhist sculpture and iconography by a great wheel. (Recall that Buddha had wheels on his feet and on the palms of his hands in the birth stories.) From this point onwards, the Buddha had a long and fruitful career, walking around the North India talking to kings, merchants, and peasants, converting people into monks and nuns, and presiding over what became a thriving monastic order.
There are many stories about this phase of the Buddha’s life. The stories about the Buddha’s life take up many shelves on a bookcase. Here is one famous story that is very, very bizarre and uncanny.
Angulimala <An-goo-lee-mall-ya> means “garland of fingers.” Angulimala, as the story begins, is a pious student, totally devout to his guru (or teacher). His fellow students were very jealous of Angulimala and began to spread scandalous lies and savage treacherous stories about him. Many of these lies were about Angulimala’s treachery towards his teacher. When his guru heard these scandalous stories he believed them and was provoked to seek revenge against his treacherous student. So when Angulimala goes to his teacher and asks him how much money he (the teacher) requires for a final teaching, the teacher tells Angulimala that the final payment will cost him the severed fingers from 100 people that he has personally killed himself.
Obediently, Angulimala departs and goes into the forest in order to follow his teacher’s instructions to kill 100 people and collect their severed fingers. The word spreads of the murderous activities of Angulimala and eventually echoes across the lands. Finally the king himself sends out an expedition to stop Angulimala and bring him to justice. Fearing for her son’s life, Angulimala’s mother sets out to warn Angulimala of the King’s posse. By this time the Buddha heard of what was happening and concluded that his mother should not go to warn him, for Angulimala was too far gone and would surely kill even her for her fingers.
So, the Buddha decides to go find Angulimala himself. As the Buddha is walking through the forest Angulimala runs over to attack him yelling: “stop, stop…I want your fingers.” The Buddha does not seem to be moving fast, yet no matter how fast Angulimala runs at the Buddha he cannot grasp him. Angulimala yells again: “Stop, stop, you old monk…I want your fingers!” And the Buddha turns around, looks at Angulimala and says: “Angulimala, I have stopped; why don’t you stop?” Angulimala replies: “You have not stopped, no matter how fast I run you keep getting away from me.” And the Buddha says: “I have stopped all of the causes of death and rebirth, why don’t you stop?”
At that moment, Angulimala turns back into a student, falls on his knees, begs for forgiveness and asks the Buddha if he can join his monastic community. Buddha then initiates him into the monastic order and makes him a monk. However, after his indoctrination, Angulimala had a tough time because everyone feared him. He could not get any food put into his begging bowel, as everyone ran when he showed his face. However, after some severe penances Angulimala was received by the community. And, according to the story, he went on to become one of the greatest monks in the Buddha’s monastic order. Angulimala is an example of radical change; once he saw himself in a new light and renounced all that he once was in order to become a new person, he too was able to be on the path towards awakening and nirvana.
Let us consider the Story of Kashyapa <kosh-a-pa>. One day the Buddha was meeting with a group of monks, but instead of speaking and giving a sermon he simply held up a flower. Everyone in the group, except for
Kashyapa, waited for an explanation. Kashyapa just smiled. The Buddha then said: There is a supreme teaching, but words cannot reach it; this supreme teaching I have just handed to Kashyapa. The Buddha’s words have a place within Buddhism. But his teaching can be conveyed via gestures-such as a smile or a tilt of the head, or even through silence. The reason is that it is not just a teaching about words and concepts; it is about how to live a serene and contemplative life. This was evident in the Buddha’s teachings and in his words.
At about the age of 80 , the Buddha’s teaching career came to an end. He gave his last teaching to some monks and gently passed from this life, never to be born again. Buddhists call this event his “Parinirvana”—“complete Nirvana.” It represents the completion of everything that he set out to accomplish when he was young and saw the four sites in the park. Remember, the Buddha’s life did not begin with his birth; it is also true to say that his life did not end with his death. Before he died, he told his disciples to cremate his body, as if it were a king’s body. He then asked his followers to place his remains in round-shaped temples or houses of worship where people could go to pray and pay homage. From these stories we can see something about both the Buddha himself as well as the tradition that he set in motion.
First, the Buddha was a human being. He was not a god or a manifestation of a god. He was a human being who tried to confront the basic human problems of suffering and death and bring them to a solution. He did this in a culture of Indian asceticism. His life had a broad impact on many traditions. He did this in a way that had a tremendous impact upon the religious life of most Asian countries.
"All is Suffering"
After the death of the Buddha, his followers faced a difficult period. While alive, the Buddha was a source of veneration and authority. When the Buddha died, he not only died in the traditional sense, but he also left the realm of rebirth altogether. What was left to fill the void? Where could people turn for answers to their questions about the Buddha’s teaching? Where would they turn for spiritual guidance? Buddhists typically gave two answers to these questions:
For those people who wanted to worship the Buddha and thought veneration was most important, the Buddha left behind his “FORM BODY”-and this initially comprised the relics left behind by the Buddha’s cremation. Over time, any physical sign or representation of the Buddha came to play the same role, including objects that the Buddha touched, places he visited, and even statues and paintings of the Buddha.
On the other hand, for those who wanted to follow the Buddha’s example and teaching, and not simply worship or venerate his form, he left behind his Dharma, the teachings that expressed the content of his awakening and showed the way for others to achieve awakening for themselves. Out of this distinction between the Buddha’s physical Body and the body of his teachings came a theory about the body of the Buddha.
This theory is similar in certain respects to Christian speculation about the notion of Christ. As many know, Christian theology distinguishes between the two natures of Christ. Christ is said to be simultaneously fully human and fully divine. Buddhist say that the Buddha has two bodies the physical or form body that arose and passed away, like anything that is material in this world. And the Dharma body that is eternal and does not change.
Despite the comparison between Christ and the Buddha, it is misleading to compare the two. The Buddha is not divine in respect to these two bodies. The form body is a physical body and it, of course, passed away. And the Dharma is simply the body of his teachings. Thus, we shall begin exploring the Buddha’s Dharma, the teachings that he left behind to monks, nuns, and lay-people about his path to his awakening and nirvana. In an important discourse called: “Discourse on the Turing of the Wheel of Dharma” Dhammacakkappavattana sutta-we find the 4 noble truths.
The Four Noble Truths
The first of these is the truth of suffering. With respect to Buddhist texts, two key languages come into play-the language of Pali, the language of Southeast Asia, which is the vernacular of Sanskrit. The second language is traditional Sanskrit, the language of ancient India. Dukkha = suffering <duke-aa>; Nibbana = Nirvana <nibbana>. We should be aware that there are several languages at play. And as Buddhism spreads, the linguistic difficulties just get more complex.
The 4 Noble Truths
1. The Truth of Suffering
2. The truth of the arising of Suffering
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirvana)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering
Some scholars think that the 4 Noble Truths are all contained in the simple claim that “All is Suffering.” The Pali phrase for this is: “Sabbam dukkham” <Saw-bum-do-come>. While this claim might be thought to denote a negative pessimism, Buddhists will most likely say that it leads to liberation and peace; to a sense of quiet and happiness, and even Nirvana. If we explore some of the more sophisticated accounts of suffering in Buddhist literature, we might see what they mean when they deny pessimism. In a more sophisticated way, “dukkha” contains 3 senses of suffering:
The Truth of Suffering-Three Senses of Suffering:
(1) Dukkha-Dukkha = Obvious suffering; physical and emotional pain. Types of pain that are undeniable.
(2) Viparinama-Dukkha <Vee par ee namma><Duke-aa> = Suffering that is due to change. This comes when even pleasurable things come to pass away. This suffering also has to do with the degree to which one is invested in things that pass away. We can be attached to physical objects, material goods, persons, experiences, etc. But they can all slip away from us, causing pain. The pain experienced by losing the things that we are attached to is Viparinama Dukkha.
(3) Samkhara Dukkha- This is a very difficult concept. This type of suffering is due to conditioned states, subtle things that can cause pain, even if they come with pleasure. If the pleasure is based upon on an illusion of the object, or on illusion about the self. For Example, consider a “Car.” Someone is driving a very nice car down the street. They are joyfully cruising along, waving to friends and, perhaps, a loved one. Then, all of a sudden, they crash into the back of a huge bus.
(1) The physical pain felt by the crash is “Dukkha-Dukkha” (1) Физическая боль, вызванная аварией, — это «Дуккха-Дуккха»
(2) The sense of the car’s destruction and change is Viparinama-Dukkha <Vee par ee namma> <Duke-aa>. (2) Ощущение разрушения и изменения автомобиля — это Випаринама-Дуккха <Ви пар и намма> <Дук-аа>.
(3) The sense of understanding that one has, perhaps, been buying into an illusion of materialism and that one’s sense of self, self-esteem, and identity should not be connected to a mere car; that one has invested in an arbitrary hunk of metal and that it does not cause real joy or happiness is Samkhara Dukkha.
The third sense of suffering has to do with the illusions that we create; some illusory sense of self that we create out of the objects that we use to populate our world or the experiences that we seek to try to develop ourselves in some way into an image of what we would like to be. Such illusions can be extremely pleasurable but if they do not match the reality of our lives and the reality of our situation, Buddhists will say that we are suffering a form of pain even in the midst of pleasure. The suffering may be very subtle, as the illusions we build can be slight and complex.
(1) People can cause us lots of pain. Think of physical or mental abuse that very clearly and obviously causes pain. This is Dukkha-Dukkha.
(2) When people change and cease to be to us what they once were. When the people that we are attached to slip away and become something else, this is Viparinama-Dukkha <Vee par ee namma> <Duke-aa>.
(3) We impose on others illusions of what we want them to be, rather than accepting them for what they are. The gap between illusion and reality in human relationships would be Samkhara Dukkha.
No Self Theory Теория отсутствия Я
Suffering has to do with illusions, misconception, illusion, etc. What is the “Self” according to Buddhism? “No Self” has to do with an understanding of the self as a non-enduring thing. The self has No permanent identity that endures from one moment to the next.
“anatta” (Pali) «анатта» (пали)
“anatman” )Sans.) «анатман» (санскрит)
The self has no permanent identity that endures. So what is the self? Buddhists suggest that there are aggregates, momentary things that when bundled together give us the illusion of selfhood. The self is a constant flow like a river or a flame. The self evolves, changes, and moves. Various questions arise for this view: If there is no self, how is there a doctrine of reincarnation or samsara? The flame of consciousness itself is what endures. When someone dies, the consciousness that is emerging in a new body (–say, a young baby–) is the “continuance.” It is neither the same nor different than the personality that was before. It is simply a causal connection. It is linked via causation. Causation links one moment with the next. Because of casual continuity in the self, an image emerges of a stream of causes that burns, leaving each moment behind as it comes into existence.
Change and Impermanence
Buddhists allege that we are always changing. The person at T1 and the person at T2 are only linked via a chain of causal events. But the person at T1 is not the person at T2, numerically speaking. But in some sense, they are the “same.” There is a connection between flames and flickers such that there is allegedly some sense in talking about selves and rebirth and transmigration. But there is no “permanence” of any kind.
One might ask: “Is the doctrine of suffering and the doctrine of “No Self” pessimistic?” From the Buddhists’ point of view it is a realistic perspective. To accept that the human personality and everything around it is constantly changing is a realistic point of view. The cause of suffering is the human desire to hang-on to things that are constantly changing, as well as the desire to prevent them from changing. So when the Buddhists look at the world through the lens of no-self, they do not approach it in a pessimistic way. If everything changes, then it is possible for everything to become new. And if they accept the doctrine of suffering it is possible to approach even the most difficult situations in life with a sense of lightness, buoyance, and freedom. So when we live and work in Buddhist communities and cultures, we meet people who do not have a particularly pessimistic viewpoint on life or the world. People are quick to let go of things that are painful because everything changes, everything is impermanent. In the end, there is nothing to hold onto. The doctrine of “no-self” also helps a person move forward on a path towards nirvana. If the Buddhist realizes that there is no permanent self, if there is no eternal enduring entity that is the “true self,” then there is no longer any reason to be attached to the things that cause someone to enter back into the cycle of death and rebirth. Realizing this insight, if only slightly, is enough to start unraveling the chain of causes and conditions that fuel the cycle of reincarnation. And by unraveling this change it is possible to take a step forward on a path towards nirvana. Two key Ideas about impermanence emerge: (1) everything is impermanent, constantly in a state of change. (2) Nothing has any permanent identity that we need to hold on to in our craving for experiences in this world.
The Path To Nirvana ( 2^("nd "),3^("rd ")2^{\text {nd }}, 3^{\text {rd }}, and 4^("th ")4^{\text {th }} Noble Truths)
The Second Noble Truth: The Truth of the Origin of Suffering: It is said in the classic accounts of the Buddha’s life that when he was under the tree of his awakening he understood not just that everything was suffering, but also that everything is related via a system of causes and that when properly understood, one could eventually gain insight and an experience of freedom from many aspects of human suffering.
The Twelvefold Chain of Dependent Arising: The origin of suffering is explained in classic Buddhism by a causal chain known as “The Twelvefold Chain of Dependent Arising.” In Pali it is called Paticca-samuppada <patichasamoopada>._Things came into existence by a whole bunch of causes. There are 12 links in the chain, and there are many strange and perplexing aspects to the links in the chain. So it is helpful to study just the key links.
Consider the following: (1) Ignorance leads to desire. (2) Desire leads to birth. The idea here is that if you have a misconception of the nature of things, then out of that misconception can come some sort of desire for those things. So, ignorance is the start of the chain. Out of desire comes birth. The sequence of causality goes like this: Ignorance rarr\rightarrow Desire rarr\rightarrow an attempt to satisfy desire. To understand what Buddhists have in mind when they make
this series of connections, you might take a glossy advertisement and ask what kinds of illusions it fosters, what kinds of desires it is meant to arouse, and what comes into being as a result of those desires. For Buddhists, this process leads to more death and rebirth. This is the engine that fuels the cycle of samsara.
The most fundamental form of ignorance is that " I " constitutes a permanent ego that needs to be fed by new and desirable experiences or new and desirable objects. The system pins the principle responsibility for the energy of samsara on ignorance-some kind of misconception about the nature of world and the nature of the self.
The 3rd Noble Truth: "The Truth of the Cessation of suffering (Nirvana)"
The Third Noble Truth tells us that when someone begins to cultivate an awareness of no-self and understand this essential insight (–and begins to strip away the desires that feed this cycle–) it is possible for the fire of samsara to burn out. This is not supposed to be easy. However, it is supposed to be possible for anyone to achieve the same cessation of samsara that was experienced by the Buddha himself (even though it may take many lifetimes). This cessation is known as “Nirvana,” which means: “To blow out”; or, “to extinguish.” Some understand nirvana as the blowing out of desire; it could also be the blowing out of ignorance; or, it could be the blowing out of life itself, if one thinks of life as a repetitive cycle of death and rebirth.
Classically, Nirvana Comes At Two Moments: (1) At the moment of the Buddha’s awakening-when he understood that he was no longer adding fuel to the fire that feeds self and desire; and, (2), at the moment of his Parinirvana (or “Complete Extinction”)-when the fire of his personality finally flickered out forever. Technically, in Buddhist terminology, this is known as “Nirvana with residues” and “Nirvana without residues.”
"Nirvana" As A Negative Doctrine «Нирвана» как отрицательное учение
Like the concept of suffering we are here again in this problematic world of negativity. It seems on the face of it that the concept of nirvana is very negative and difficult to put a positive spin on. Thus, some people react negatively to the concept of Nirvana. The goal of Buddhism is to have everything that causes desire to stop and become extinguished. The goal is to stop the process that creates life. The concept of Nirvana forces us to take a close look at the classic Indian evaluation of samsara. The cycle of samsara is best when it simply stops. Nirvana is simply an image or doctrine of cessation. We must come to terms with the Buddhist evaluation of things,
namely, that to cease activity is the utmost goal of life. So in everyday Buddhism we must evaluate what it claims is valuable and important about human experience.
In the Judeo / Christian tradition, God starts by creating something out of nothing. In the beginning was nothing. God takes nothing and makes something out of it. In the Western traditions the goal of life is, to some extent, to create something out of our lives. The West values creativity, and especially the ability to create something out of nothing.
The Buddhist tradition has the exact opposite view of human life. Buddhists thinks that the life-death process has been going on since “beginning-less time.” The Buddha discovered how to make some of that stop. Buddhists teach to “create nothing out of something.” That model of creating nothing and ceasing to fuel creation is the model that the Buddha gives us to follow. We can learn by his example: It is crucial. It forces us to take seriously the Indian processes of Samsara.
The Buddha's Experience of Nirvana and A Positive Spin on Nirvana
The Buddha experienced Nirvana at the moment of his awakening when he knew that he was no longer bound by ignorance and desire and was no longer enmeshed in the cycle of samsara. When we understand the concept this way, and when we encounter the experience this way we can see that for Buddhist Nirvana is not just the cessation of life. The Buddha lived for 40 years after his awakening. So, according to some Buddhists, Nirvana is a quality of mind or a state of being that characterizes the whole of the Buddha’s life, including that 40-year period between his awakening and his death. And that period, some say, represents the ultimate achievement of human life in Buddhist tradition.
What is Nirvana like? Какова Нирвана?
Traditionally, it is said to be inexplicable and ineffable. Nevertheless, some Buddhists have characterized it as follows: The Buddha’s Nirvana was very peaceful and very calm. His fears and illusions ceased to be. He became very wise. He became unattached and unbound. He was free and liberated from the things that tie one to this
world and cause suffering. He became detached from this world. He was able, out of Nirvana, to act with spontaneity, clarity of mind, perhaps even compassion towards others. Thus, some Buddhists argue that we can state many things that are valued in the Buddhist tradition in addition to the ultimate goal of cessation. Nirvana is cessation and, perhaps, the perfect instantiation of certain qualities, such as: calmness, wisdom, and freedom.
The Forth Noble Truth: What is the path That Leads To Nirvana?
The path to Nirvana is often characterized by Eight Categories:
Right Understanding Правильное понимание
Right Thought
Right Speech Правильная речь
Right Livelihood Правильный образ жизни
Right Action
Right Effort Правильное Усилие
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration
If we simplify this list, the Eight Categories can be grouped into Three Categories:
I. “Sila” <Sea-la> = Moral Conduct I. «Сила» <Си-ла> = Моральное поведение
II. “Samadhi” <sam-a-dee> = Mental Concentration II. «Самадхи» <сам-а-ди> = Ментальная концентрация
III. “Panna” <pon-ya> = Wisdom III. «Панна» <пон-я> = Мудрость
I. Sila = Moral Conduct: Buddhist lay-people (non-monks) are supposed to observe and practice 5 moral precepts:
No Killing Не убивать
No Stealing Не красть
No Lying Не лгать
No Abusing Sex Не злоупотреблять сексом
No Intoxicants Запрещены опьяняющие вещества
Monks have a few more:
Cannot eat after mid-day
Cannot sleep on soft beds Нельзя спать на мягких кроватях
Cannot handle gold, silver, and other precious materials
II. Samadhi / Mental Concentration
Meditation Медитация
Cultivating the mind in order to focus one’s experience.
Becoming calm in order to see the world better
How does a novice learn to Meditate? Sit in a comfortable position, preferable the Lotus Posture. Back straight; fold hands one over the other with thumbs touching; allow body to relax; focus on Breathing; let thoughts slip out of your head; allow the mind to become calm.
In the Buddhist Tradition, wisdom involves understanding the doctrine of “no-self.” No-Self is one of the most basic insights in all of Buddhist thinking.
The Buddhist Community Буддийская община
The third refuge is: The Samgha-The community that gathered to carry on the Buddha’s teaching. During his career as a teacher, the Buddha wondered around Northern India, mostly in the middle region of the Ganges basin, and gathered together a large and diverse group of followers and supporters. This included laypeople, monks, and nuns. The role of laypersons within Buddhist Communities is important. The ideal of the layperson is often represented by the figure of “Anathapindika” <anta-pin-dika>-- the donor, or Danapati <don-a-pa-tee> (i.e., lord of generosity). Anathapindika was a particularly generous person. He purchased a large space of land for the Buddha and his monks. It was, allegedly, a very expensive and rich pleasure grove. Generosity is not included in the 5 moral precepts that were discussed. But generosity is a fundamental virtue for a layperson. Generosity is a fundamental way to express one’s commitment to the monastic organization and to the pursuit of Buddhist values. Generosity makes it possible for monks and nuns to live the monastic life (-- because it, of course, supports the monastery–). It also gives laypeople the opportunity to simulate, in their own way, the ideal of renunciation that the monks and nuns are enacting.
Monks are recognizable by their orange robes and begging bowls. The term for “monk” is bhikkhu (in Pali) and bhikshu (in Sans.). Both derive from the root word for “begging.” So, naturally, begging is one of the constitutive actions that makes one a monk. Monks wake up very early and walk in a precession; they walk in a meditative way. They line up in front of a house and laypeople come out with food. People put food in the bowls and then the monks move on to another house. The monks collect food for the whole monastery. (Monks never eat after noonday.) This is a basic Buddhist action that is symbolically rich in that it sows together a Buddhist community. Why
do people give to begging monks? Firstly, they give in order to support the monastery. But, secondly, it provides an opportunity for a layperson to accumulate positive Karma (which they call “merit”). Positive Karma is necessary for a favorable rebirth in a future life. Since the Buddhists do not believe in the caste system, their reincarnations are usually explained in terms of progressions towards Buddha-hood and Nirvana. Giving to begging monks gives the layperson the opportunity to symbolically engage in a sort of renunciation. The layperson “gives up” food and this is symbolic for the more complete forms of “giving up” / sacrificing that is made by monks. In Buddhist communities, generosity or donating is one of the most fundamental acts of devotion that is a key factor in the foundation of the community.
There are other ways for a layperson to acquire merit, such as visiting shrines and holy sites. Recall that upon his death, the Buddha’s physical remains, after cremation, were put in reliquary mounds (round shrines) called “Stupas.” These Stupas became the prototype for places of Buddhist worship. Buddhists often visit temples and make offerings at a shrine; they chant, pray, bow with their palms pressed together, and so on. Much like the Hindu, they offer lamps, candles, flowers, incense, incantations, prayers, etc. to pay homage. The objective (or goal) of worship is not (typically) to communicate with Buddha, as he is in Parinirvana-but rather, to gain merit and help orient the devotee on the path to nirvana.
Buddha seems to have been somewhat ambiguous about nuns. According to legend, a woman named Mahaprajapati Gautami (–who was the Buddah’s great aunt–) asked him if she could join his monastic organization. She asked if her and her friends could be ordained into monastic life. Allegedly, Buddha told her that monastic life was not appropriate for women. So he sent her away. She supposedly made several attempts to change his mind, but had no luck. Then one day she was crying outside of a monastery where a large group of monks were meeting. Upon hearing her troubles, the monks went to the Buddha and asked him if he would ordain her and her friends. He finally agreed, but with certain conditions: Most notably, nuns could never occupy a position higher than the lowest male monk (within the monastic order). The Buddha did say, however, that it is possible for nuns to achieve awakening and Nirvana.
The order of nuns that grew out of the original order of nuns was, according to tradition, quite numerous, active, and influential. Hence, the original order of nuns was quite important for the expansion of Buddhism across Asia. Today India only has a minuscule number of Buddhists and very few nuns. However, China, Tibet, and Korea have thriving nunneries and monastic orders. Also, in modern Buddhism nuns do not seem to occupy a secondary or subservient role within the overall Buddhist context. They are a vibrant and powerful force. So, in an over-all evaluation of things, we might say that the Buddha opened up a realm of opportunities for women in Asia, especially in ancient India where women and widows were offered so few opportunities.
Key Developments In the History of Buddhism
If we trace the history of the monastic community from the time of the Buddha through subsequent generations there are a few important transitions that that have affected the shape of Buddhist monastic practice as we know it today. The monastic community began as a group of wonderers but it soon evolved into a settled pattern of life, at least for a portion of the year. The rainy season, which arrives in Northern India during the months of June and July, made the roads impassable and forced the monks to take refuge where they could be supported by a stable group of lay followers. At first there were just temporary dwelling places. But soon they developed into something that was fixed and stable, allowing the monks fixed and established setting for the whole year.
These settled monasteries are called “Vihara” <Vee-har-as> and they became the central institution of Buddhist monasticism and the bearers of Buddhist values. After the Buddha’s death the monks that lived in monasteries, as well as those who wondered around India, faced a particularly important problem of authority. Who could the Buddhist disciples turn to when they needed to settle disputes about doctrine or discipline? While the Buddha was alive, he was the source of authority. While alive, he also told his followers to look at his teachings as a source of authority. This point was expressed in one of the Buddha’s most famous teachings: “Whoever sees the Dharma sees me. Whoever sees me sees the Dharma.” Many followers took this to suggest that all emphasis should lay on the Buddha’s teaching. Thus, after his death the community had to find a way to fix and settle the content of the Buddha’s teaching so that it could function as a source of authority.
After the Buddha’s Parinirvana a group of senior monks convened a council to recite the Buddha’s teaching and establish an authoritative body of doctrine and discipline. Two key people were called upon to help establish doctrine as spoken by the Buddha: (1) Ananda <An-un-duh>-the Buddha’s attendant and disciple who followed him almost everywhere. Ananda recited the doctrinal teachings. These became the Sutta-Pitaka or Baskets of Discourses. These are the doctrinal discourses of the Buddha. (2) Upali <00-paul-lee> recited the Buddha’s rules and regulations. These became the Vinaya-Pitaka <vin-eye-ya>-The Basket of Discipline. Eventually these two baskets were supplemented by a 3^("rd ")3^{\text {rd }} basket: Abhidhamma-Pitaka<Uh-be-duma>-The Basket of Reflection, which contained reflections on the Buddha’s teaching. Together, these three baskets, called “the tripitaka”—form the cannon of Buddhist Scripture and Discipline.
These would have existed as an oral tradition for several centuries after the death of the Buddha. The content of Buddhist scripture is often quite simple and pragmatic and clearly grows out of the oral tradition that took place between the Buddha and his early disciples. They often begin with an oral formula: “Thus have I heard…” We can get a sense of this by looking at some of the most famous teachings, such as: “Discourse on the Turning of
the Wheel of the Dharma.” This was the first sermon that the Buddha delivered after his awakening in the city of Sarnath <sar-not> as he encountered a group of his old associates.
The text begins:
"Thus have I heard: At one time the Lord was staying in the Deer park at Isipatana near Banaras. There the Lord spoke to a group of five monks: “O monks, someone who has gone forth into the monastic life should avoid two extremes. What are the two? One is devotion to passions and worldly pleasures. This is inferior, common, ordinary, unworthy, and unprofitable. The other is devotion to self-mortification. This is painful, unworthy, and unprofitable. By avoiding these two extremes, O monks, the Tathagata has realized the Middle Path. It gives vision, it gives knowledge, and it leads to calm, superior insight, awakening, and nivana. And what, O monks, is the Middle Path? It is the Noble Eightfold Path: right views, right thoughts, right speech, right action, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. This, O monks, is the Middle Path realized by the Tathagata. It gives vision, it gives knowledge, and it leads to calm, superior insight, awakening, and nirvana.”
After this account of the Middle Path, the Buddha goes on to give a brief account of the Four Noble Truths. One of the simplest of the early sermons (which is also one of the most significant sermons) is the Fire Sermon: The Buddha begins by saying: “Bhikkus, all is burning. And what is the all that is burning? Bhikkhus, the eye is burning, visible forms are burning, visual consciousness is burning…Burning with what? Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hate, with the fire of delusion.” The Fire Sermon is important because it contains key Buddhist metaphors, not just for the practice of ordinary meditation but also for Buddhist theory as a whole, such as teachings about the nature of the self. In meditation one is trying to get the mind to become calm. Meditation should cool the mind, calm desire, and help induce a type of spiritual quietness. Thus, this simple metaphor gives us a roadmap to the practice of Buddhist meditation. Meditation is meant to cool the fires of distraction in this world. It also, via the fire metaphor, reminds us that the world is always in a process of change, constantly burning as we add new things to it and changing as those things are consumed and pass away.
Another story that is commonly used to illustrate the practical orientation of the Buddha’s teaching also gives us insight into what the Buddha was like as a teacher. This is a story about a man named Malunkyaputta <Mal-unkya-putta> who came to the Buddha and asked him:
“Is the world eternal, or is it not eternal? Is it going to last forever or is it going to pass away? Is the world finite? Or is it infinite? Is the soul the same as the body? Will the Buddha exist after death?” In response, the Buddha said: "You remind me of a guy who was shot by a poison arrow. When people came running to pull the arrow out, the man said to them: “Wait a minute…Do not pull out the arrow until you can tell me who shot it, what the feathers are made of, what type of poison was used on the tip, etc. Do not pull out the arrow until you can answer all of these questions.” The Buddha said: “What I have to offer you is the chance to pull the arrow of suffering out of your body. Do not ask me a bunch of irrelevant and impractical questions. Take my teachings and use them as an antidote to suffering and focus on the path to Nirvana.”
This teaching is important to Buddhists and is often used to help them focus on issues of relieving human suffering. Now, if you trace the history of the early community further, an event takes place that is crucial to the evolution of Buddhism. A second Buddhist council was called about 100 years after the death of the Buddha. Historical accounts of this council are contradictory, so it is difficult to be certain about the sources of controversy and its outcome. But the most probably accounts are as follows:
On one account the council was provoked by the scandalous behavior of a monk named Mahadeva. Another account says that it was provoked by disagreements over some of the prohibitions in traditional monastic discipline. Specifically, one that prevented monks and nuns from using gold and silver and another that prevented them from carrying salt from one day to the next. (Monks cannot carry food from one day to the next, so it was debatable whether or not one could carry salt from one day to the next.) Out of the dispute came a split between two parties within the Buddhist community. One was known as the Sthaviravada<Stuv-i-ra-vada> = “The Doctrine of the Elders.” Out of this branch came the “Theravada” sect of Buddhism, which dominates countries in Southeast Asia today (except Vietnam). The other party was known as the Mahasamghika <mu-ha-somg-i-ka> or “Great Community.” Out of this sect came the famous “Mahayana,” which today dominates Northern Asia. Eighteen schools developed out of these two parties. But only one survived in its traditional form, namely, the Theravada.
Mahayana Buddhism Махаяна буддизм
Let us consider Mahayana Buddhism. Out of the 18 Sects (or “nikayas” <nick-keye-as>) only the “Theravada” remains. Out of the 18 sects emerged the Mahayana or “great vehicle.” The opposite is the “Hinayana” <hen-ayana> or “Lesser Vehicle.” Mahayana emerged rather mysteriously as a reform movement. The Mahayana tell a parable to show the difference between Mahayana and “Hinayana.” It is “The Parable of the Burning House.” This story is located in the Lotus Sutra, a key Mahayana text. The parable is a story of a father who represents Buddha. The father is standing outside of a house that is on fire. The children are in the burning house playing and ignore the calls of their father who is trying to get them out of the burning house. He father shoots, “The house is on fire, come out of the house into safety.” The children ignore him. So he yells up at the children: “I have separate carts for you to play with down here. Come out and receive your toys.” The kids come running out of the house. The father says that he is delighted that the children have come out of the burning house, but he does not have a separate cart for each of them. He tells the children that he has one great cart that they can all play with. The one great cart stands for the Mahayana.
For the Mahayana this story has great significance. While the Buddha may have many teachings, in the end there is only one great teaching, and that is the teaching of the Mahayana. The burning house story is supposed to assert that there is one highest teaching. According to Mahayana, this one teaching was given to them by the Buddha during his lifetime. The story also gives rise to another Mahayana doctrine, “The Doctrine of Skillful Means.” The text asks: Did the father lie to the children. And it answers “no,” the father used a skillful technique to get the children out of the burning house. The Mahayana want to claim that the Buddha can (and should) use any means necessary to get his message across-the message of helping others to escape the fire of suffering.
Indian legends about the Mahayana trace its origin to an alleged event in the Buddha’s life where he delivered a special teaching called “Second Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma” at Vulture Peak in Rajagriha. He supposedly gave this teaching, which is the teaching of the Mahayana, to a special assembly of bodhisattvas. Most Buddhist practitioners were excluded from this secret meeting. The claim is that this teaching was concealed for several centuries until the world was ready to receive it. Then the sutras were brought forth and promulgated across India. Scholars are very uncertain about the origin of the Mahayana. Some Mahayana claim that Buddhist senior monks were meditating and fasting in order to receive wisdom and then they were given extraordinary insight (–almost like divine revelation–). But, of course, that account has no evidence in its favor. The vast body of Mahayana texts are elaborate literary constructions that could hardly be revealed in a single vision or dream. Historians used to believe that the Mahayana arose from the lay worshippers at Stupas. However, this view has been shown to be false by many scholars because it was demonstrated that whatever happened, the early Mahayana were part of the Buddhist monastic community and had very strong monastic ties. While the origins of the Mahayana tradition is obscure, we can still know a great deal about its teachings, since it is a vibrant living tradition.
One of the most important teachings involves a concept called “The bodhisattva ideal.” This doctrine designates an ideal, namely someone who does not go straight to nirvana but returns to this world in order to help others reach nirvana. Returning to this world in order to help others along the Buddha path is quintessential to the Bodhisattva ideal. This key doctrine of the Mahayana is called “The bodhisattva ideal.” It says that one should not go straight to Nirvana, but should return to this world in order to help others along the path to Nirvana. The Bodhisattva Idea contrasts with “Arhant Ideal”-the ideal that a person should attempt to achieve nirvana by leaving the world of Samsara. The image that goes with the “Bodhisattva Ideal” is a circle: The practitioner starts out towards Nirvana, but circles back to help others. Two key Mahayana virtues arise from the Bodhisattva Ideal," namely Wisdom (panna) and Compassion (“Karuna” <ka-roo-naa>). Some say that the bodhisattva renounces nirvana in order to lead others to the path of nirvana. However, this is not correct according to most Mahayana. They claim that a bodhisattva actually aspires to achieve Buddhahood (i.e., to become a Buddha) for the sake of all other beings. Eventually even bodhisattvas become Buddhas when their aspirations are fulfilled and their practice of leading others to the path is complete.
In the literature, bodhisattvas are often depicted as regular human beings like ourselves, fully engaged in worldly activities. In Mahayana literature, “Vimalakirti” is a sort of bodhisattva hero. He was, according to the literature, a wise layperson who mastered the disciplines of monastic life, yet he lived the life of a layperson. He had a family, children, and an occupation. According to some stories, he even gave the Buddha himself lessons and teachings. In one story involving Vimalakirti he asserts the key lesson in one of Mahayana’s most valued stories, “The Dharma Door of Non-Duality.” In what way can you enter into the dharma or teaching of non-duality? Nonduality is the theory of no-self. So the question is: In what way can I begin to understand the teaching of 'no-self?"
According to the story, the monks sat around trying to give answers based upon Buddhist scripture. One monk would point to one sutra, another monk would point to another. All the while Vimalakirti was listening to each monk. Then the monks turned to Vimalakirti to ask him for his thoughts. He gave the greatest lesson of all, he said nothing. This is the famous episode of Vimalakirti’s silence. This silence becomes the text’s definitive account of the dharma door of non-duality. In other words, the secret to understanding no-self is that it is beyond comprehension, beyond concepts, and only silence is left. It is an ineffable truth. Vimalakirti is an ordinary person who is able to be as wise, enlightened, etc. as his monastic contemporaries. So in some deep sense he is the people’s champion.
There are other laypersons of importance within Mahayana literature. Queen Shrimala teaches about the Buddha’s nature. Some bodhisattvas are not adults, such as a young student named Sudhana. In one Mahayana story, Sudhana visits 50 teachers and finally found one teacher, a bodhisattva who had a vision of the universe that was vastly more complex and complete than anything we find in the earlier literature of this tradition. Worldly figures like this had a profound effect on the spread of Buddhism. The tradition was no longer seen as a religion based solely on a monastic ideal. Rather, it could now directly appeal to laypersons. The sum result of all of this was that Buddhism became more accessible to ordinary people (i.e., those who are not monks).
In classic Mahayana literature, the most important conceptual expression of the bodhisattva path is known as “bodhicitta” <bo-dee-chit-aa> i.e., “Mind of Awakening.” This is the union of wisdom and compassion and is expressed in the form of an aspiration: "May I achieve Buddhahood for the sake of all other beings. May I embody the quality of wisdom in my own experience as the Buddha did for the sake of all other beings?’ Formal accounts of the bodhisattva path divided it into a series of stages. One account of the bodhisattva path, is divided into “Six Perfections.”
Generosity Щедрость
Moral Conduct
Patience
Courage
Mental Concentration Ментальная концентрация
Wisdom Мудрость
This path lists virtues that we have encountered and are familiar with already. However, it adds a few others. “Mental Concentration” in the Mahayana school does not designate meditation per say. It is an unusual type of meditation in which one attempts to establish a particular kind of relationship to others that usually involves deep ties of sympathy and perspective-taking. In this way, one can dispel all negative emotions such as envy, hate, distain, etc. Through perspective-taking exercises one can put one’s self in another’s shoes and begin to let go of negative emotions. One bodhisattva spiritual-exercise involves seeing all other people in the universe as your mother (–probably in another life–). Since the process of samsara has been going on since “beginningless-time,” it is highly probably that most people have been a mother in a previous life, or will be a mother in another life. This type of meditation is meant to develop compassion.
Another account of the bodhisattva path divides it into 10 stages. This path has the first “Six Perfections” but then adds on others that have to do with achieving power. The type of power in question is supposedly some type of meditative power connected with the imagination in which one projects the 6 six virtues so as to have a profound effect on this world. One can also accrue great merit via spiritual power. One cannot only, for example, go to a shrine to offer a Buddha some garlands or incense. But, rather, one can imagine a universe filled with Buddhist and can make offerings to all of them, thereby increasing one’s merit and spiritual power, thus increasing one’s wisdom by vast leaps and bounds.
Celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattvas Небесные Будды и бодхисаттвы
In the Mahayana devotional tradition, reality and the Buddha’s powers expands infinitely. So you have an image of the Buddha and of bodhisattvas acquiring powers that far surpass the powers of any ordinary human being in a religious context or in any kind of context in which we would normally live. According to the doctrine of the Mahayana, advanced practitioners of the bodhisattva path achieve extraordinary super human powers, such as the radical expansion of one’s sympathetic, caring, and loving capacities. These powers make it possible for bodhisattvas to reside in the “heavens,” not just in this world. These extraordinary beings are given the name celestial bodhisattvas. These powers make them such that they can function as the equivalents of the Hindu gods.
Buddhists insist, however, that the bodhisattvas have gone far beyond the Hindu gods in their power and in their understanding of reality. Celestial bodhisattvas and Buddhas like the ones just described are the objects of
devotion throughout the Buddhist world. In fact, there is a whole pantheon of celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattvas that provide the structure of devotion throughout the entire Buddhist world.
One of the most important celestial bodhisattvas in the Mahayana world is Avalokiteshvara <ava-look-a-tashevara> “The Lord who Looks Down.” This lord presumably looks down with compassion. Avalokiteshvara is the great embodiment of compassion, which is crucial to Mahayana virtue. In the Lotus Sutra Avalokiteshvara is described as a protean (i.e., a shape-shifting) deity who can take many different forms in order to save someone who calls his name. In a devotional text, Avalokiteshvara is recounted by a devotee as follows:
“Listen and I will explain how far hundreds of unimaginable eons he purified himself by reaffirming his vows in the presence of millions of Buddhas. The systematic visual and auditory recollection of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara will without fail result in this world in the elimination of all suffering and sorrows of living beings. If an evil minded fiend intent on killing you throws you in a pit of charcoal recall Avalokiteshvara and the fire will be extinguished as if it were sprayed with water. It someone throws you into the depths of the ocean, the abode of sea-serpents and monsters recall Avalokiteshvara the king of the waters and you will never drown. Avalokiteshvara has perfected all qualities. He looks down upon all beings with pity and kindness; he is a great ocean of virtue; he is worthy of praise. He has compassion for the world and will one day become a Buddha. I bow down before Avalokiteshvara who puts an end to all suffering.”
This is a classic devotional statement about Avalokiteshvara in the Mahayana tradition. Avalokiteshvara can be invoked in many different ways in Buddhist practice. The text that was read involves recalling him, remembering his presence, remembering his name; but it is also possible to invoke Avalokiteshvara by using a mantra (–i.e., a sacred phrase that has power–) which can bring Avalokiteshvara’s powers of compassion to bear on any situation of danger or suffering. This is a mantra that Buddhists treat with extreme reverence. It goes as follows: “Om manipadme hum” <om-man-ee-pod-may-home>. Some translate this as: “Ah, the Jewel in the Lotus.” However, mantras are not supposed to be translated. They are supposed to have power in and of themselves (–like magic words–), so their meanings are not particularly important. Just recite the words and they will bring to bear on any situation of danger the saving power of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.
This is commonly used in Tibet. If you think of a Tibetan picture-such as a mountain pass or a trail or the wall of a monastery-the mantra “Om Manipadme hum” is often carved in the wall or on a sign or on a stone. The mantra is also written on flags on mountain passes, or written on the side of a prayer wheel. In most of the Mahayana world, Avalokiteshvara is associated with a female bodhisattva named Tara (which means “protectress”). She helps devotees cross over samsara to reach safety on the other side. She is the female manifestation of Avalokiteshvara’s compassion. There is a significant devotional tradition dedicated to her. This shows the importance within the Mahayana tradition of figures who function like the goddesses of Hindu devotion. Here is a devotional chant to Tara.
These devotionals give a sense of the feeling that was created in the Mahayana tradition as people began to evoke and imagine and make real in their own devotions these great celestial bodhisattvas.
In Tibet Avalokiteshvara is known as “Chenrezig” <chen-ree-zee> or <chen-ray-zeek>. Chenrezig is the patron deity of Tibet and takes Form, according to Tibetan tradition, of the monkey who is the progenitor of the Tibetan race. He is responsible for the lineage of the Dalai Lamas. So the Dalai Lama is considered to be a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara’s compassion.
In China Avalokiteshvara is known as “kuan-yin”: (meaning, one who hears sounds). During the Tang Dynasty (618-907) in China Kuan-yin become pictured as a white robbed female deity who was associated with the power to grant children. Thus, at various holy sites associated with Kuan-yin one sees pilgrims, mostly women, who travel to the shrines to pray for the welfare and prosperity of the family.
Another important celestial bodhisattva is Maitreya <my-tray-a> who even in the early tradition was considered the future Buddha. Maitreya, waited in a Buddhist heaven known as “Tushita” (means “Pleasurable”), until the time was right to descend into this world and put the teachings of Buddha into motion. Devotes of Maitreya not only invoke his aid but also in some traditions can make a visual ascent to Maitreya’s heaven to see him face-toface. A very Famous Mahayana story tells of such an event. This story involves a great Chinese Buddhist. Hsuantsang, a well-known Chinese monk was out on a pilgrimage in India at the beginning of the 7^("th ")7^{\text {th }} century. According to the story, he was traveling down the Ganges river and entered into a desolate stretch where upon his convoy of pilgrims were attacked by bandits who were followers of the Hindu goddess of war (Dorga). The bandits captured the travelers, taking them to the river bank, stripped them of all of their belongings and were going to sacrifice Hsuan-tsang to the Hindu goddess. The bandits built an alter to the Hindu goddess and were about to kill Hsuantsang, but he asked for a few moments to say his last prayers. However, instead of becoming calm, Hsuan-tsung made a visual ascent to the heaven of Maitreya. He visited Maitreya in His mighty thrown room. As he gazed on
the face of Maitreya a great storm arose on the Ganges, crushing the bandits’ boats and knocking down the bandits. At that moment the bandits all through themselves down at Hsuan-tsang’s feet and begged the Chinese monk for forgiveness, asking him if they could be initiated into the Buddhist community.
Whatever else, the story shows us the Mahayana devotion to Maitreya and gives us an image in which Maitreya can be visualized in some heavenly realm such that his aid can be made present and his powers felt here on earth. Another way in which Maitreya is imaged and made present to us in the image of Hotei <whore-lay>-the fat laughing Buddha. He carries a big bag with gifts that are meant to satisfy the needs of all sentient beings. Maitreya is another powerful Mayahana image of the presence and power of the celestial bodhisattvas.
Another celestial Bodhisattva is Manjushri <mun-ju-shree> (meaning “charming”). Manjushri is the Bodhisattva of wisdom and the patron deity of scholars. In one hand he carries a copy of the Mahayana sutras, called “the perfection of wisdom.” He is the Buddhist counter-part of the Hindu goddess Sarasvati <sar-rus-wa-tea> whose festivals are mostly celebrated by Hindu school children across India. For Buddhist monks, Manjushri is a common force of inspiration for scholars.
Celestial bodhisattvas are very important within the Mahayana tradition, but so too are celestial Buddhas. The devotional tradition within the Mahayana is not just directed at bodhisattvas, but also at figures who have completed the path to Buddhahood. One of the most important celestial Buddhas is Amitabha <Aw-me-ta-ba> “infinite light.” The story of Amitabha says that he took a vow when he became a Buddha that he would create a Pure land known as Sukhavati <sue-ka-va-tea> (“the pleasurable land”). Anyone who chants Amitabha’s name or recalls his presence, especially at the moment of death, is reborn in the pure land. Here is a story of Amitabha from the text: “Shorter Sukhavativyuha Suta.”
"Then the Blessed One said to Shariputra: “in the west, Shariputra, many hundreds of thousands of Buddha-fields from here, there is a Buddha-field called the Land of Bliss. A perfectly awakened Buddha, by the name of Infinite Light, dwells in that land and preaches the Dharma. Why do you think it is called the Land of Bliss? In the Land of Bliss no living beings suffer any pain in body in mind, and they have immeasurable reasons for pleasure…When any sons or daughters of good family hear the name of the Blessed Buddha of Infinte Light and keep it in mind without distraction for one, two, three, four, five, six, or seven nights, then, at the moment of death, the Buddha of Infinite Life will stand before them, leading a group of bodhisattvas and surrounded by a crowd of disciples, and those sons or daughters of good family will die with minds secure. After their death, they will be born in the Land of Bliss, the Buddha-field of the Buddha of Infinite Light. This is what I have in mind, Shariputra, when I say that sons or daughters of good family should respectfully aspire for that Buddha-field.”
The recollection of Amitabha is often expressed in the words namo mitabhaya buddhaya (“homage to Amitabha Buddha”). Like the invocation of Avalokiteshvara’s name, this practice was a deliberate attempt to open the
possibility of salvation to anyone who approaches the deity with sincere faith. Devotion to Amitabha Buddha (which is called “Pure Land Buddhism”) has been particularly influential in China and Japan. The Pure Land tradition represents the largest Buddhist group in America.
The practice of Pure Land Buddhism raises a significant question about “salvation by faith.” How can a tradition that placed so much emphasis on self-reliance be transformed into a tradition of reliance on a celestial savior? As surprising as it may seem, this tradition is a natural outgrowth of the Mahayana understanding of the bodhisattva’s compassion. In the Mahayana, it is important not only to act with compassion but also to receive the compassion of others. In the Mahayana, the passage to awakening has been stretched out over many lifetimes as a bodhisattva returns to this world again and again to help others. The length of the bodhisattva path puts more emphasis on the virtues that help a person get started on the way to awakening. It is less important to have perfect wisdom, which can come later, than to develop the faith that begins the path. It also is important to receive the compassion of others gratefully. These changes of emphasis make possible a radically new view of salvation.
As one can see, Buddhism is a rich and complex religious tradition. It has similarities to other traditions, but remains unique in scope and character. Buddhism has at least 540 million followers around the world, which represents about 8% of the world’s population. While China has the most practitioners of Buddhism in today’s world, its influence stretches across the globe. This introduction has merely offered a small sample of introductory concepts to guide those who are interested in further research.
“Omm praised the blessed noble Tara. Your compassion extends equally to all beings on the pathways of rebirth. Therefore I am surely among those whom it embraces. Your unequalled capacity to save beings shines like the sun on the dark passions. The impurities of the whole world and I too suffer and am tormented. O the impure deeds that I have committed. Woo ill-fated am I. I am blind even to the light of the sun. I am thirsty even on the banks of an icy mountain stream. I am poor even with access to abundant jewels in the minds of the isle of gems. And yet it is possible for people to see each of your hairs, the expanse of heaven, wherein dwell all of the Hindu gods as well as human saints and other divine beings and all directions ae pervaded with hundreds of Buddhas without end which you have magically fashioned. Worthy of worship by the triple world in your being you contain all creatures. Some see you red like the sun whose rays are reder than red-lacker or vermillion. Others see you blue like dust of pulverized fragments of precious Safire. And some see you white, more dazzling than the ocean of milk and brighter than gold. Your form, like a crystal takes on various aspects, changing like the different things that are placed near it.”