relationships with other people. However, so far our discussion has not addressed what a “fun” activity actually feels like to the individual. Our next perspective on well-being begins by exploring this topic. 与其他人的关系。然而，到目前为止我们的讨论还没有涉及到“有趣”的活动对个人来说实际感觉如何。我们接下来对幸福感的视角将从探讨这个话题开始。
Flow and Optimal Experience 心流与最佳体验
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1975; pronounced ME-hi Chick-SENT-me-hi) began his studies of psychological well-being by asking people to describe in their own words what it felt like when they were doing something really enjoyable and the activity was going extraordinarily well for them. He was interested in finding out what it felt like to experience intense enjoyment, fun, play, and creativity. In his initial study, Csikszentmihalyi interviewed over 200 people who were deeply involved in activities that required considerable amounts of time and for which they received little or no money or recognition. What he got from his interviewees were wonderfully rich and compelling descriptions of moments of wonder and magic, when everything was working just right and all activity just happened effortlessly. 米哈伊·契克森米哈伊（1975 年；发音为 ME-hi Chick-SENT-me-hi）通过让人们用自己的话描述当他们做某件非常愉快且活动进展异常顺利时的感受，开始了他对心理福祉的研究。他感兴趣的是体验强烈愉悦、乐趣、玩耍和创造力的感受。在他的初步研究中，契克森米哈伊采访了 200 多名深度参与某些活动的人，这些活动需要大量时间，而他们几乎得不到金钱或认可。他从受访者那里获得的是关于奇妙和魔幻时刻的丰富而引人入胜的描述，当时一切都在顺利进行，所有活动都毫不费力地发生。
During the interviews, chess masters and basketball players related what it felt like to be totally engaged in a game, dancers spoke about those moments when they were dancing at their best, composers spoke of what it was like when the muse was working and music just seemed to happen by itself, rock climbers went into vivid detail about the moment-to-moment experience of climbing as one’s skill was pitted against the possibility of failure. Csikszentmihalyi took the descriptions that he received and performed a phenomenological analysis of the experiences. That is, he examined the verbal descriptions of experience for common themes that appeared in most of the descriptions. These common themes appeared to describe a fairly recognizable state of consciousness. His initial name for the experience was the autotelic experience, but he later settled on the simpler term flow. 在访谈中，国际象棋大师和篮球运动员讲述了完全投入比赛时的感受，舞者谈论了他们跳舞最出色时的那些时刻，作曲家描述了灵感涌现时音乐仿佛自然而然产生的情景，攀岩者详细描绘了攀爬过程中每一刻的体验，即他们的技能与失败的可能性之间的较量。奇克森特米哈伊对他收到的描述进行了现象学分析。也就是说，他检查了这些体验的口头描述，寻找大多数描述中出现的共同主题。这些共同主题似乎描述了一种相当可识别的意识状态。他最初将这种体验称为自足体验，但后来决定使用更简单的术语“心流”。
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 米哈伊·契克森米哈伊
Source: Courtesy of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. 来源：米哈伊·契克森米哈伊提供。
Definition of Flow 心流定义
After the interviews and his content analysis of the responses, Csikszentmihalyi (1975) created a definition of the flow experience: 在进行了访谈和对回答的内容分析之后，奇克森特米哈伊（1975 年）创造了一个关于心流体验的定义：
Flow denotes the holistic sensation present when we act with total involvement… It is the state in which action follows upon action according to an internal logic which seems to need no conscious intervention on our part. We experience it as a unified flowing from one moment to the next, in which we feel in control of our actions, and in which there is little distinction between self and environment; between stimulus and response; or between past, present, and future. (p. 43) 心流指的是我们在完全投入行动时所体验到的整体感觉……这是一种状态，在这种状态下，行动根据一种内在逻辑一个接一个地发生，似乎不需要我们意识的干预。我们将其体验为从一个时刻到下一个时刻的统一流动，在这种流动中，我们感到自己掌控着行动，并且自我与环境、刺激与反应、过去、现在和未来之间的区别很小。（第 43 页）
Readers who are sports fans may have already recognized the experience Csikszentmihalyi is describing. In the past few years it has become commonplace to refer to these experiences in sports as being in the zone (Cooper, 1998; Kimiecik & Stein, 1992). 体育迷读者可能已经认出了奇克森特米哈伊所描述的这种体验。在过去的几年里，将这种体育中的体验称为“进入状态”已经变得司空见惯（库珀，1998 年；基米奇克和斯坦，1992 年）。
Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow has been popular, both in psychology and the mainstream media. This is probably because the experience of being in flow is fairly common, and many people instantly recognize just what Csikszentmihalyi is talking about. For example, Csikszentmihalyi (1997) reported on surveys that ask people, “Do you ever get involved in something so deeply that nothing else seems to matter, and you lose track of time?” (p. 33). American and European samples have found that about 20%20 \% of people report having these flow-like experiences often, sometimes several times a day. Only about 15%15 \% of people say they never have that experience. Of course, the percentage of people who have had intense flow experiences is much smaller. For those who have had the flow experience, either intensely or mildly, it seems that they immediately appreciate the link between flow and psychological well-being. 契克森米哈伊的“心流”理论在心理学和主流媒体中都颇受欢迎。这可能是因为心流体验相当普遍，许多人立刻就能理解契克森米哈伊所描述的内容。例如，契克森米哈伊（1997 年）报告了一项调查，询问人们：“你是否曾经全神贯注于某事，以至于其他事情都显得无关紧要，甚至忘记了时间？”（第 33 页）。美国和欧洲的样本发现，大约 20%20 \% 的人经常有这种类似心流的体验，有时一天内会多次出现。只有大约 15%15 \% 的人表示他们从未有过这种体验。当然，经历过强烈心流体验的人比例要小得多。对于那些经历过心流体验的人，无论是强烈的还是轻微的，他们似乎立刻就能体会到心流与心理健康的联系。
Characteristics of Flow 心流的特点
What exactly is the flow experience like? Csikszentmihalyi stated that flow can be described with eight parameters (see also Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009): 心流体验究竟是什么样的？奇克森特米哈伊指出，心流可以用八个参数来描述（另见中村和奇克森特米哈伊，2009）：
A merging of action and awareness. People who experience flow are involved in an activity to the point that they feel “inside” the activity. People do not have to think about what they are doing before they do it. There is no sense of being an observer who is watching and evaluating the activity. In fact, this type of divided consciousness or “outside” 行动与意识的融合。体验到心流的人们会全神贯注于某项活动，以至于感觉自己“置身于”活动中。人们在行动之前无需思考自己正在做什么。没有作为旁观者观察和评估活动的感觉。事实上，这种分裂的意识或“置身事外”的感觉是不存在的。
perspective destroys the flow experience. For instance, an expert rock climber told Csikszentmihalyi (1975) what it was like when he was on a climb: “You are so involved in what you are doing, you aren’t thinking of yourself as separate from the immediate activity … you don’t see yourself as separate from what you are doing.” ^(1){ }^{1} 视角会破坏流畅体验。例如，一位攀岩专家告诉奇克森特米哈伊（1975 年）他在攀岩时的感受：“你完全沉浸在你正在做的事情中，不会把自己视为与当前活动分离的存在……你不会觉得自己与你正在做的事情是分开的。” ^(1){ }^{1}
Complete concentration on the task at hand. The merging of action and awareness is made possible by complete concentration and a centering of attention on the activity of the moment. This concentration appears effortless, however, and is not associated with mental strain or aggressive efforts to control or repress thinking. A composer described it as, “I am really quite oblivious to my surroundings after I really get going [i.e., composing]. I think the phone could ring … or the house could burn down … when I start working I really do shut out the world.” 完全专注于当前的任务。通过完全专注和将注意力集中在当前的活动上，行动和意识的融合成为可能。这种专注看起来毫不费力，并且不与精神紧张或刻意控制或压抑思考的积极努力相关联。一位作曲家这样描述：“当我真正开始创作后，我确实对周围环境相当麻木。我想电话可能会响……或者房子可能会烧毁……当我开始工作时，我真的把世界隔绝在外。”
Lack of worry about losing control that, paradoxically, results in a greater sense of control. The loss of worry apparently allows people to maintain concentration and focus on the task. This focus allows them to feel as if they are in complete control of their actions. Often they feel more in control than they have ever been. A dancer expressed it as follows, “If I have enough space, I am in control. I feel I can radiate an energy into the atmosphere… It’s not always necessary that another human being be there to catch that energy. I can dance for the walls, I can dance for the floors … I become one with the atmosphere.” 不担心失去控制，这种看似矛盾的状态反而带来了更强的控制感。显然，摆脱担忧使人们能够保持专注，集中精力完成任务。这种专注让他们感觉自己完全掌控着自己的行动。通常，他们会感到比以往任何时候都更有控制力。一位舞者这样表达：“如果我有足够的空间，我就能掌控。我感觉自己可以向周围辐射能量……并不总是需要另一个人在那里接收这种能量。我可以为墙壁跳舞，我可以为地板跳舞……我与周围环境融为一体。”
A loss of self-consciousness. Once again, this criterion appears to reinforce the merging of awareness and action, as well as the focused concentration. During flow, that part of consciousness that evaluates and plans before acting - the ego - is quieted. We don’t have to think before we act, we are not trapped in an internal conflict between various options. A music composer described what it felt like when he was writing at his best: “You yourself are in an ecstatic state to such a point that you feel as though you almost don’t exist… My hand seems devoid of myself, and I have nothing to do with what is happening. I just sit there watching it in a state of awe and wonderment. And it just flows out by itself.” 自我意识的丧失。再一次，这一标准似乎强化了意识和行动的融合，以及专注的集中。在心流状态下，那部分在行动前进行评估和计划的意识——自我——被平静下来。我们不需要在行动前思考，我们不会陷入各种选择之间的内心冲突。一位音乐作曲家描述了他处于最佳创作状态时的感受：“你自己处于一种狂喜的状态，以至于你感觉几乎不存在……我的手似乎脱离了我自己，我与正在发生的事情毫无关系。我只是坐在那里，以一种敬畏和惊奇的状态看着它。它就自然而然地流淌出来。”
As Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi (1988) have stated, "in flow the self is fully functioning, but not aware of itself doing it… At the most challenging levels, people actually report experiencing a transcendence of self’ (p. 33, original italics). 正如奇克森特米哈伊和奇克森特米哈伊（1988 年）所指出的，“在心流状态下，自我完全发挥作用，但并不意识到自己在这样做……在最具挑战性的水平上，人们实际上报告说体验到了自我的超越”（第 33 页，原文斜体）。
5. Time no longer seems to pass in ordinary ways. Time may seem to 5. 时间似乎不再以普通的方式流逝。时间可能看起来
pass more quickly than usual, or it may appear to vastly slow down. This element of flow can be dramatic and may be one of the more distinctive reasons for describing flow as an alternate state of consciousness. For instance, people have described this feeling while playing sports. Often they say that suddenly it seems as if they have all the time in the world to shoot a basket, throw a pass, or position the racket for their next shot. For many, time seems to slow down as they feel a sense of relaxation, a lack of worry, and extreme confidence that their next move will be perfect. A chess master said, “Time passes a hundred times faster. In a sense, it resembles the dream state. A whole story can unfold in seconds, it seems.” 时间似乎比平时过得更快，或者可能显得极为缓慢。这种流畅性的元素可能非常戏剧性，可能是将流畅状态描述为一种替代意识状态的一个更独特的原因。例如，人们在运动时描述过这种感觉。他们常常说，突然间似乎他们有足够的时间来投篮、传球或为下一次击球定位球拍。对许多人来说，时间似乎放慢了，他们感到放松，没有忧虑，并且极度自信地认为他们的下一步动作将是完美的。一位国际象棋大师说：“时间快了一百倍。在某种意义上，它类似于梦境状态。一个完整的故事似乎在几秒钟内就能展开。”
6. Autotelic nature of the experience. This term refers to the fact that the experience is done for its own sake rather than as a means to another goal. A rock climber said, “The mystique of rock climbing is climbing; you get to the top of the rock glad it’s over but really wish it would go forever. The justification of climbing is climbing … you don’t conquer anything except things in yourself… The purpose of the flow is to keep on flowing, not looking for a peak or utopia but staying in the flow… There is no possible reason for climbing except the climbing itself; it is a self-communication.” 6. 体验的自发性质。这个术语指的是体验是为了其本身而进行，而不是作为达到另一个目标的手段。一位攀岩者说：“攀岩的神秘之处在于攀岩本身；你到达岩石顶端时，虽然很高兴结束了，但真的希望它能永远继续下去。攀岩的正当性在于攀岩……你征服的只是自己内心的东西……心流的目的是持续流动，不是寻找顶峰或乌托邦，而是保持在流动中……除了攀岩本身，没有其他可能的理由；这是一种自我交流。”
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) noted that there may even be an autotelic personality style. This personality style is associated with a person who consistently does things for their own sake, with involvement and enthusiasm, rather than in response to external threats or rewards. Such individuals are characterized by autonomy and independence. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1997), the major characteristic that defines autotelic individuals is that “their psychic energy seems inexhaustible” (p. 123). In addition, he suggests that autotelic persons are less self-centered and generally less concerned with themselves, tending to be “free of personal goals and ambitions” (p. 125). 齐克森米哈伊（1990）指出，甚至可能存在一种自为目的的人格风格。这种人格风格与那些始终为了事物本身而做事、充满投入和热情的人相关，而不是对外部威胁或奖励的反应。这类个体以自主和独立为特征。根据齐克森米哈伊（1997）的观点，定义自为目的个体的主要特征是“他们的心理能量似乎无穷无尽”（第 123 页）。此外，他还认为自为目的的人较少以自我为中心，通常不太关注自己，倾向于“摆脱个人目标和抱负”（第 125 页）。
7. Flow accompanies a challenging activity that requires skill. This criteria of flow describes one of the parameters that Csikszentmihalyi believes is associated with creating the feeling of flow. Csikszentmihalyi asserted that when the personal challenge of an activity pushes one’s skill level so that intense focused concentration is required, then the conditions are right for flow. If the demands are high and skills are low, then the person will feel anxiety. If the demands are low and skills are high, the person will feel bored. It is only when the demands of the situation present a challenge to the person’s skills that 7. 心流伴随着需要技能的挑战性活动。这一心流标准描述了奇克森特米哈伊认为与创造心流感觉相关的一个参数。奇克森特米哈伊断言，当一项活动的个人挑战推动一个人的技能水平，以至于需要高度集中的专注力时，心流产生的条件就具备了。如果要求高而技能低，那么人会感到焦虑。如果要求低而技能高，人会感到无聊。只有在情境的要求对个人的技能构成挑战时，
flow is possible. 心流是可能的。
8. An activity has clear goals and provides immediate feedback (note that some researchers list clear goals and immediate feedback as two separate parameters). Once again, this describes the parameters of flow. The following quote from professional tennis player Billie Jean King illustrates this quality: “On one of those days everything is just right … my concentration is so perfect that it almost seems as though I’m able to transport myself beyond the turmoil on the court to some place of total peace and calm. I’ve got perfect control of the match, my rhythm and movements are excellent, and everything’s in total balance… It’s a perfect combination of aggressive action taking place in an atmosphere of total tranquility … just totally peaceful.” 8. 活动有明确的目标并提供即时反馈（请注意，一些研究者将明确目标和即时反馈列为两个独立的参数）。再一次，这描述了心流的参数。以下职业网球运动员比利·简·金的一段话说明了这一特质：“在那样的一天里，一切都恰到好处……我的专注力如此完美，几乎仿佛我能够将自己从球场上的混乱中抽离，到达一个完全平静和安宁的地方。我完全掌控了比赛，我的节奏和动作都极佳，一切都处于完全的平衡之中……这是在完全宁静的氛围中发生的积极行动的完美结合……只是完全的平静。”
1 Unless noted, all the quotes describing the flow experience in this section of the chapter are taken from Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) original paper on flow. 1 除非另有说明，本章此节中描述心流体验的所有引文均摘自契克森米哈伊（1975 年）关于心流的原论文。
An activity during flow must have clear goals and immediate feedback so that a person doesn’t have to wonder about how well they are performing the activity during flow. 心流活动必须具有明确的目标和即时反馈，这样一个人在心流状态下就不必怀疑自己进行活动的表现如何。
Csikszentmihalyi contended that these eight qualities capture the essence of the flow experience. Not all are necessarily present during every flow-like experience, but in intense flow experiences most of them should be present. Note that the first six characteristics describe what flow feels like as one experiences it. They were abstracted from the phenomenological descriptions given to Csikszentmihalyi. The last two characteristics, however, describe the conditions under which flow experiences tend to occur. These two are not necessarily descriptions of internal experiencing. Instead they relate to the fit between the person’s level of learned competencies or skills and the demands of the current situation or challenges. The distinction between levels of challenges and skills is often used to describe the optimal environment for inducing flow. In the current model of flow seen in Figure 4.1, the optimal activity for flow will balance a highly challenging activity with a person’s high skill level for that activity. 契克森米哈伊认为，这八个特质捕捉了心流体验的本质。并非所有特质在每次类似心流的体验中都会出现，但在强烈的心流体验中，大多数特质应该存在。请注意，前六个特征描述了人们在体验心流时的感受。这些特征是从提供给契克森米哈伊的现象学描述中抽象出来的。然而，最后两个特征描述了心流体验倾向于发生的条件。这两个特征并不一定是内部体验的描述。相反，它们与个人的学习能力和技能水平与当前情境或挑战的要求之间的匹配有关。挑战水平和技能水平之间的区分通常用于描述引发心流的最优环境。在图 4.1 中看到的心流当前模型中，最优的心流活动将是一个高度挑战性的活动与个人在该活动上的高技能水平之间的平衡。
Figure 4.1 - Current Model of Flow 图 4.1 - 当前心流模型
Source: Handbook of Positive Psychology, edited by Snyder and Lopez (2002), Fig. 7.1b, p. 95. By permission of Oxford University Press. Adapted from M. Csikszentmihalyi, Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement With Everyday Life. 来源：积极心理学手册，由斯奈德和洛佩斯编辑（2002 年），图 7.1b，第 95 页。经牛津大学出版社许可。改编自 M. 奇克森特米哈伊，《发现心流：日常生活中的投入心理学》。
This balance has been referred to as just manageable challenges (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). To continually experience flow in an activity, it is assumed a person must continue to engage in progressively more complex challenges and keep pushing his or her own skill levels (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). 这种平衡被称为“刚好可管理的挑战”（Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002）。为了在活动中持续体验心流，假设一个人必须不断参与越来越复杂的挑战，并持续提升自己的技能水平（Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009）。
Contexts and Situations of Flow 情境与心流状态
The range of contexts in which people report flow is fascinating (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). Csikszentmihalyi’s original study included people who were actively involved in creative artistic pursuits, hobbies, and sports. In addition to the contexts listed thus far, people report flow when participating in activities such as religious rituals (Han, 1988), using computers (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994), while teaching in the classroom (Beard, Stansbury, & Wayne, 2010), driving a car (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997), interactions with one’s family (Rathunde, 1988), during solitary retreats (Logan, 1985), during psychotherapy sessions (Grafanaki, Brennan, Holmes, Tang, & Alvarez, 2007), during online learning experiences (Shin, 2006), cramming for exams (Brinthaupt & Shin, 2001), and even during military combat (Harari, 2008). One of the most frequently mentioned contexts for flow is when reading for pleasure (McQuillan & Conde, 1996). Of course, almost any sports activity could create the context for flow, or being “in the zone” (Jackson, 2016). Recently, music, and especially playing music, has been a topic of flow research (Chirico, Serino, Cipresso, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2015). 人们报告心流体验的情境范围令人着迷（Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009）。Csikszentmihalyi 的原始研究包括了积极参与创造性艺术追求、爱好和运动的人们。除了迄今为止列出的情境外，人们在参与宗教仪式（Han, 1988）、使用计算机（Ghani & Deshpande, 1994）、在教室里教学（Beard, Stansbury, & Wayne, 2010）、驾驶汽车（Csikszentmihalyi, 1997）、与家人互动（Rathunde, 1988）、在独自静修期间（Logan, 1985）、在心理治疗过程中（Grafanaki, Brennan, Holmes, Tang, & Alvarez, 2007）、在线学习体验中（Shin, 2006）、为考试临时抱佛脚（Brinthaupt & Shin, 2001），甚至在进行军事战斗时（Harari, 2008）都会报告心流体验。最常提到的心流情境之一是阅读消遣（McQuillan & Conde, 1996）。当然，几乎任何体育活动都可能创造心流的情境，或者进入“状态”（Jackson, 2016）。最近，音乐，尤其是演奏音乐，已成为心流研究的主题（Chirico, Serino, Cipresso, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2015）。
Today, many people report they experience flow during work (Fullagar & Kelloway, 2009), and a new construct called “work engagement” has been developed to capture this blend of vigor, dedication, and absorption. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) speculated that flow experiences may be the key to job satisfaction. Studies have also found that the ability to experience flow is helpful to the psychotherapeutic and rehabilitation processes (Riva, Freire, & Bassi, 2016). Social activities may also be more enjoyable if all members of the group experience flow. One study found that “social flow” was more enjoyable than solitary flow (Walker, 2010). Indeed, in team sports it is possible for the entire team to experience flow during a game (Cosma, 1999), a phenomenon that has also been called “cohesion” (Sugarman, 1998). Similarly, musicians, dancers, and actors often report group flow experiences during their ensemble performances. 今天，许多人报告称他们在工作中经历了心流（Fullagar & Kelloway, 2009），并且为了捕捉这种活力、奉献和专注的融合，发展出了一个新构念，称为“工作投入”。Csikszentmihalyi（1990）推测，心流体验可能是工作满意度的关键。研究还发现，体验心流的能力对心理治疗和康复过程有帮助（Riva, Freire, & Bassi, 2016）。如果所有小组成员都体验到心流，社交活动也可能更加愉快。一项研究发现，“社交心流”比独自心流更令人愉快（Walker, 2010）。事实上，在团队运动中，整个团队在比赛期间都有可能体验到心流（Cosma, 1999），这一现象也被称为“凝聚力”（Sugarman, 1998）。同样，音乐家、舞者和演员也经常报告在他们的合奏表演中经历了群体心流体验。
Csikszentmihalyi has also referred to the experience of microflow. This refers to moments when we are leisurely involved in a relatively simple, almost automatic activity, such as doodling. Similarly, because flow can have various degrees of intensity, Moneta (2012) has used the terms “shallow” flow and “deep” flow to describe intensities of flow. 契克森米哈伊还提到了微流体验。这指的是我们在休闲时参与相对简单、几乎是自动的活动时的时刻，比如涂鸦。同样，由于流体验可以有不同程度的强度，莫内塔（2012）使用了“浅层”流和“深层”流来描述流体验的强度。
Although studies have found the descriptions of flow to be remarkably similar in various countries around the globe (Asakawa, 2005; Fave & Massimini, 2004), interesting variations have emerged. For instance, 尽管研究发现，全球各国对“心流”的描述惊人地相似（Asakawa, 2005; Fave & Massimini, 2004），但一些有趣的差异也显现出来。例如，
Japanese tend to report flow during high challenge-high skills activities, whereas Chinese tend to report it during low challenge-high skills activities (Moneta, 2004). In general, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) has argued that flow allows people to enjoy life, feel happier, and function better in a variety of contexts. 日本人倾向于在高挑战-高技能活动中报告心流体验，而中国人则倾向于在低挑战-高技能活动中报告心流体验（Moneta, 2004）。总的来说，Csikszentmihalyi（1990）认为心流体验让人们能够享受生活，感到更快乐，并在各种情境中更好地发挥作用。
Is Flow a State or a Trait? 心流是状态还是特质？
Whether flow should be conceptualized as a state or a trait has been the subject of considerable study. If flow is a state, then it is a state of consciousness that can occur to anyone with the same amount of effort given the right circumstances. However, if flow is a trait, then there should be innate differences in how easily individuals can experience flow. When flow is viewed as a trait, it is referred to as dispositional flow. Indeed, Csikszentmihalyi suggested that flow had trait-like qualities in his earliest writings by including in his list of flow characteristics the “autotelic personality.” A study of over 10,000 twins in Sweden investigated flow and personality traits known to have a genetic component (see Harmat, Ørsted Andersen, Ullén, Wright, & Sadlo, 2016). Investigators found that flow proneness was related to a number of genetically linked personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience. They concluded that flow has the trait-like characteristics of the autotelic personality. Because children seem to be able to enter flow states spontaneously and frequently, the ability to experience flow may also manifest early in life. It may be that we don’t need to learn how to flow, but we can be taught how to repress flow. Regardless of whether flow should be seen as a state or a trait, Csikszentmihalyi and his wife, Isabella, have insisted that flow is a universal human experience found in all cultures of the world (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). 心流是否应被概念化为一种状态或特质，一直是大量研究的主题。如果心流是一种状态，那么它是一种意识状态，在适当的情况下，任何人通过相同的努力都能体验到。然而，如果心流是一种特质，那么个体在体验心流时的难易程度应该存在先天差异。当心流被视为一种特质时，它被称为倾向性心流。事实上，契克森米哈赖在其早期著作中提出，心流具有特质般的特性，他在心流特征列表中包括了“自发性人格”。瑞典一项对超过 10000 对双胞胎的研究调查了心流和已知具有遗传成分的人格特质（参见 Harmat, Ørsted Andersen, Ullén, Wright, & Sadlo, 2016）。研究人员发现，心流倾向与一些与遗传相关的人格特质有关，如外向性、宜人性以及对经验的开放性。他们得出结论，心流具有自发性人格的特质特征。由于儿童似乎能够自发且频繁地进入心流状态，体验心流的能力可能在生命早期就已显现。 也许我们不需要学习如何进入心流状态，但我们可以被教导如何抑制心流。无论心流是被视为一种状态还是一种特质，奇克森特米哈伊和他的妻子伊莎贝拉都坚持认为，心流是一种普遍的人类体验，存在于世界上的所有文化中（Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988）。
Unique Qualities of Flow 心流的独特品质
The uniqueness of this theory comes from the fact that it proposes that happiness and well-being can be associated with a unique experience that involves altered perceptions of self, time, and abilities. It should be obvious by now that when Csikszentmihalyi describes highly intense experiences of flow, he is describing a state of consciousness that is qualitatively different from normal consciousness. As such, Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of flow is one of the few theoretical perspectives on psychological well-being that says higher well-being can be the result of experiencing an alternate state of 这一理论的独特性在于它提出，幸福和福祉可以与一种独特的体验相关联，这种体验涉及对自我、时间和能力的改变性感知。至此应该显而易见，当契克森米哈伊描述高度集中的心流体验时，他是在描述一种与正常意识有质的区别的意识状态。因此，契克森米哈伊的心流理论是少数几个关于心理福祉的理论视角之一，认为更高的福祉可以源自体验一种替代的意识状态。
consciousness-at least when flow is experienced in its more intense forms. 意识——至少在体验到更强烈的心流状态时。
Evidence also exists that the experience of flow has a physiological counterpart. Daniel Landers and colleagues (Landers, Han, Salazar, & Petruzzello, 1994) measured the brain wave activity of athletes (i.e., archers, marksmen, and golfers) just seconds before they performed. They found that being “in the zone” coincided with less activity in the left hemisphere, which is associated with analytical and intellectual thought, and greater activity in the right hemisphere, which is associated with verbal and special ability (at least this was true for right-handed people). Corrina Peifer and colleagues (Peifer, Schulz, Schächinger, Baumann, & Antoni, 2014) found that flow was associated with moderate activation of the sympathetic nervous system and possibly a coactivation of sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. That is, there is some stress involved in meeting the challenges of the skill-challenge parameter (i.e., sympathetic response), but flow also involves a type of relaxation (i.e., parasympathetic response). However, too much stress from attempts to balance skills and challenges results in a decreased ability to experience flow. The experiences of intrinsic enjoyment and flow are also associated with specific patterns of evoked potential in brain waves (Dietrich, 2004; Hamilton, Haier, & Buchsbaum, 1984). The ability to selectively attend to stimuli found in flow is associated with different states of awareness or states of consciousness. The ability to voluntarily switch attention among various stimuli is called attentional switching. Greater skill at attentional switching has been associated with higher psychological well-being (Peters, Wissing, & Steyn, 2006). 也有证据表明，心流体验具有生理上的对应物。丹尼尔·兰德斯及其同事（Landers, Han, Salazar, & Petruzzello, 1994）测量了运动员（即弓箭手、射击手和高尔夫球手）在表演前几秒钟的大脑波形活动。他们发现，处于“最佳状态”时，左半球的活跃度较低，这与分析和智力思考有关，而右半球的活跃度较高，这与语言和特殊能力有关（至少对右撇子的人来说是这样）。科琳娜·佩弗及其同事（Peifer, Schulz, Schächinger, Baumann, & Antoni, 2014）发现，心流与交感神经系统的适度激活以及交感神经和副交感神经分支的可能共同激活有关。也就是说，在应对技能-挑战参数的挑战时（即交感神经反应），存在一定的压力，但心流还涉及一种放松状态（即副交感神经反应）。然而，试图平衡技能和挑战所带来的过多压力会导致体验心流的能力下降。 内在享受和心流体验也与脑波中特定模式的诱发电位相关（Dietrich, 2004; Hamilton, Haier, & Buchsbaum, 1984）。在心流中发现的对刺激的选择性关注能力与不同的意识状态或意识水平相关。在多种刺激之间自愿切换注意力的能力被称为注意力切换。更高的注意力切换技能与更高的心理幸福感相关（Peters, Wissing, & Steyn, 2006）。
Galway (1974) proposed four stages a person might go through as he or she moves from microflow to intense flow experiences. The first stage is paying attention or simply focusing attention on physiological processes. The second stage is interested attention. This state of mild flow is the result of persistently maintaining focus on the activity and continually bringing attention back to the present. In this stage, one doesn’t have to concentrate hard on focusing attention and eliminating distractions and is able to stay with the activity and enjoy it. The third stage is absorbed attention. At this point, the person is so absorbed in activity that it is almost impossible for attention to wander or be distracted by extraneous stimuli. This stage is often accompanied by altered perceptions of time and space. The fourth stage is merging, where the person is no longer aware of a separation between self and activity. A transcendent experience, such as Galway（1974 年）提出了一个人从微观流动到强烈流动体验可能经历的四个阶段。第一阶段是集中注意力，或者简单地将注意力集中在生理过程上。第二阶段是感兴趣的注意力。这种轻微流动状态是持续保持对活动的关注并不断将注意力带回当下的结果。在这个阶段，人们不需要费力地集中注意力并消除干扰，能够保持在活动中并享受它。第三阶段是全神贯注。在这个阶段，个人如此专注于活动，以至于注意力几乎不可能游离或被外部刺激分散。这个阶段通常伴随着对时间和空间的感知改变。第四阶段是融合，此时个人不再意识到自我与活动之间的分离。一种超越的体验，例如
being “in the zone,” defines this stage (see Edlin & Golanty, pp. 114-115). 处于“心流状态”定义了这个阶段（参见 Edlin & Golanty，第 114-115 页）。
Flow and Subjective Well-Being 心流与主观幸福感
Any discussion of the relationship between flow and well-being must acknowledge the potential for circular reasoning that comes with this territory. That is, because Csikszentmihalyi originally asked people to describe moments when activities were going extremely well, the theory of flow began by asking people about moments of well-being. So one answer to the question of whether flow is associated with well-being must be yes, because feelings of well-being were the starting point of the initial interviews. The real question, therefore, is whether having more frequent flow experiences in the present actually increases our sense of happiness or life satisfaction when flow is over. 任何关于心流与幸福感之间关系的讨论都必须承认这一领域可能存在的循环论证问题。也就是说，由于契克森米哈赖最初让人们描述活动进行得极其顺利的时刻，心流理论始于询问人们关于幸福感的时刻。因此，对于心流是否与幸福感相关的问题，一个答案必须是肯定的，因为幸福感是初始访谈的起点。因此，真正的问题是，在当前更频繁地经历心流是否实际上会在心流结束后增加我们的幸福感或生活满意度。
One answer to this question comes from the research on leisure. Because flow is a significant component of many pleasurable leisure activities, flowlike experiences seem to be related to leisure and satisfaction. As noted earlier in this chapter, research has supported the positive relationship between leisure activities and subjective well-being. It is also obvious that flow may be a significant aspect of intrinsically motivated activities in that people return again and again to activities that allow them to experience flow, even though they receive no recognition or money to do so. 这个问题的答案之一来自休闲研究。由于心流是许多愉快休闲活动的重要成分，类似心流的体验似乎与休闲和满意度相关。正如本章前面所提到的，研究支持休闲活动与主观幸福感之间的积极关系。很明显，心流也可能是内在动机活动的重要方面，因为人们会反复参与那些能让他们体验心流的活动，即使他们从中得不到认可或金钱回报。
For over 45 years, research on flow has consistently found relationships between being in flow and increased well-being (Harmat et al., 2016; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). For example, LeFevre (1988) found that the more time people spent in flow, the greater was their quality of experience during the day, including such aspects as greater concentration and creativity and more positive emotionality. Interestingly, individuals did not report greater life satisfaction, only higher-quality experiencing. Wells (1988) studied the relationship between self-esteem and flow in working mothers and found that flow was significantly correlated with feeling better about oneself as a parent. That is, if their interactions with their children were easy, comfortable, and tension free-if they flowed-then women felt they were better mothers. However, their overall sense of self-esteem was not associated with flow experiences; mothers could feel good about themselves with or without flow. Another study found that adolescents felt happier, more cheerful, excited, and involved with a higher self-concept when they perceived their family environment at home as more autotelic 超过 45 年的研究一致发现，处于心流状态与提升幸福感之间存在关联（Harmat 等人，2016 年；Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi，2009 年）。例如，LeFevre（1988 年）发现，人们处于心流状态的时间越长，他们在一天中的体验质量就越高，包括更集中的注意力、更强的创造力以及更积极的情绪。有趣的是，个体并没有报告更高的生活满意度，只是体验质量更高。Wells（1988 年）研究了在职母亲的自尊与心流之间的关系，发现心流与作为父母对自己感觉更好显著相关。也就是说，如果她们与孩子的互动轻松、舒适且无紧张感——即处于心流状态——那么女性会觉得自己是更好的母亲。然而，她们的整体自尊感与心流体验无关；母亲们无论是否处于心流状态，都能对自己感觉良好。另一项研究发现，当青少年认为家庭环境更具自发性时，他们会感到更快乐、更愉快、更兴奋、更投入，并且自我概念更高。
(Rathunde, 1988). An autotelic family context was one that created an optimal balance among the facets of choice, clarity, centering, commitment, and challenge. （拉图恩德，1988 年）。自足的家庭环境是指在选择的各个方面、清晰度、专注度、承诺和挑战之间创造了最佳平衡的环境。
Why Does Flow Increase Well-Being? 为什么心流能提升幸福感？
In his analysis of why flow increases well-being, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) began with what he regarded as a “simple truth.” That is, he suggested that the quality of our lives is determined by how well we are able to control our consciousness. The ability to exert a measure of control on consciousness leads to order and greater well-being. A lack of this ability leads to various states of dissatisfaction and disorder or what he calls “psychic entropy.” Nevertheless, control is not some kind of mental muscle that rigidly squashes all unwelcome thoughts and emotions. Rather, control is a learned skill that involves a balanced regulation of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and attention. One of the primary reasons that flow leads to wellbeing, therefore, is that it helps create order in consciousness. This order allows for the smooth functioning of consciousness. 在他对心流如何提升幸福感的分析中，契克森米哈伊（1990）从一个他认为的“简单真理”开始。也就是说，他提出我们生活的质量取决于我们控制意识的能力。对意识施加一定程度的控制会导致秩序和更大的幸福感。缺乏这种能力会导致各种不满和混乱的状态，或者他称之为“心理熵”。然而，控制并不是某种精神肌肉，僵硬地压制所有不受欢迎的思想和情感。相反，控制是一种习得的技能，涉及对思想、情感、行为和注意力的平衡调节。因此，心流导致幸福感的一个主要原因在于它有助于在意识中创造秩序。这种秩序使得意识能够顺畅运行。
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) stated, “When the information that keeps coming into awareness is congruent with goals, psychic energy flows effortlessly” (p. 39). That is, part of the flow experience is a lack of internal conflict between competing goals. The ability to control consciousness and increase the probability of optimal experiencing can also create an increase in the sense of mastery, a sense of participation in life, and the ability to determine the content of life on a moment-by-moment basis. In addition, the ability to control the contents of consciousness can give us the ability to be independent of the social environment, so that external circumstance need not determine our emotional or intellectual states. Csikszentmihalyi（1990）指出：“当不断进入意识的信息与目标一致时，心理能量就会毫不费力地流动”（第 39 页）。也就是说，流畅体验的一部分是竞争目标之间缺乏内部冲突。控制意识的能力以及增加最佳体验概率的能力，还可以增强掌控感、参与生活的感觉，以及能够随时确定生活内容的能力。此外，控制意识内容的能力可以赋予我们独立于社会环境的能力，从而使外部环境不必决定我们的情绪或智力状态。
After the flow experience a further ordering of consciousness occurs. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) theorized that because of the flow experience the organization of the self is more complex. In addition, the sense of self is more integrated after the flow experience as the various elements that make up the complex self work together more harmoniously. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) also suggested that the ability to stay absorbed and interested in our daily experience is one of the key ingredients of a happy and fulfilling life. In his view, the “first step” to enjoying life more is to learn how to engineer daily activities in order to foster rewarding experiences. For example, musicians often have a favorite instrument that increases the likelihood of 在心流体验之后，意识会进一步有序化。契克森米哈赖（1990）理论认为，由于心流体验，自我的组织变得更加复杂。此外，心流体验后，自我感更加整合，因为构成复杂自我的各个元素更加和谐地协同工作。契克森米哈赖（1997）还提出，能够专注于并对我们日常体验保持兴趣，是幸福和充实生活的关键要素之一。在他看来，享受生活的“第一步”是学会如何设计日常活动，以促进有益的体验。例如，音乐家通常有一件最喜欢的乐器，这增加了他们进入心流状态的可能性。
flow when they play it. Couples often use this strategy as a way to increase the flow that comes with those special romantic evenings: They enjoy dinner by candlelight and listen to “their song.” Women wear that special dress, men bring flowers - and if it works, the rest of the world fades away as the two people get lost in the flow of their romantic evening together. 当他们在玩这个游戏时，常常会进入心流状态。夫妻们经常使用这种策略来增加那些特别浪漫夜晚带来的心流体验：他们在烛光晚餐中享受美食，聆听“他们的歌”。女士们穿上那件特别的裙子，男士们带上鲜花——如果一切顺利，周围的世界就会逐渐消失，两人沉浸在共同浪漫夜晚的心流中。
This principle of engineering daily experiences was adopted in the Key School, an experimental elementary school that believed school could be enjoyable as well as rigorous (Whalen & Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Part of the project was to create the Flow Activities Room where students could engage in intrinsically motivated free play that challenged their skills and focused concentration. The school was able to increase student well-being as well as attention to coursework by providing focused activities that were challenging, freely chosen, and allowed for skill development. 这一工程日常体验的原则被采纳于关键学校，这是一所实验性小学，认为学校可以既有趣又严格（Whalen & Csikszentmihalyi, 1991）。项目的一部分是创建“心流活动室”，学生们可以在这里参与内在动机驱动的自由玩耍，这些活动挑战他们的技能并集中注意力。学校通过提供具有挑战性、自由选择且允许技能发展的专注活动，成功地提升了学生的幸福感以及对课程的关注。
Flow is also an example of what Mark Leary and Jennifer Guadagno (2011) described as the hypoegoic state or “low ego” state, in which selfawareness is low and attention is focused on concrete rather than abstract stimuli. However, the state of deep absorption found in flow has qualities of both the hypoegoic state and normal ego functioning (Nakamura & Roberts, 2016). That is, in flow a person has both less focus on the self and greater focus on activities. In hypoegoic states many positive emotional experiences occur during this state because self-talk is decreased along with accompanying anxiety and distress. Along these same lines, flow is also a task-focused activity rather than self-focused. Task-focused attention often leads to greater well-being (Robinson & Tamir, 2011). For example, one study (Kulkarni, Anderson, Sanders, Newbold, & Martin, 2016) found that flow tended to reduce the use of psychological defensive mechanisms. Therefore, it is possible that flow increases well-being partially because it helps to reduce the anxiety associated with defensiveness. Contrastingly, a study by Schiffer and Roberts (2017) suggested that people find flow activities to be daunting or even intimidating because they are beyond one’s usual skills. In their study, most people preferred passive leisure activities, despite the fact that passive activities tend to not increase happiness as reliably as active engagement activities such as flow. 心流也是马克·利里和詹妮弗·瓜达尼奥（2011 年）所描述的低自我状态或“低自我”状态的例子，在这种状态下，自我意识较低，注意力集中在具体而非抽象的刺激上。然而，心流中发现的深度沉浸状态既具有低自我状态的特征，也具有正常自我功能的特征（中村和罗伯茨，2016 年）。也就是说，在心流状态下，一个人对自我的关注减少，对活动的关注增加。在低自我状态下，许多积极的情绪体验会发生，因为自我对话减少了，伴随的焦虑和痛苦也随之减少。沿着同样的思路，心流也是一种任务导向的活动，而非自我导向的。任务导向的注意力往往会导致更大的幸福感（罗宾逊和塔米尔，2011 年）。例如，一项研究（库尔卡尼、安德森、桑德斯、纽博尔德和马丁，2016 年）发现，心流倾向于减少心理防御机制的使用。因此，心流可能部分地通过帮助减少与防御性相关的焦虑来增加幸福感。 相比之下，Schiffer 和 Roberts（2017）的一项研究表明，人们认为心流活动令人畏惧甚至令人害怕，因为它们超出了一个人通常的技能范围。在他们的研究中，大多数人更喜欢被动的休闲活动，尽管事实上被动活动往往不像心流这样的主动参与活动那样可靠地增加幸福感。
Before leaving the topic of flow, it should be mentioned that there may be a dark side to flow. That is, flow has also been reported in activities that are not conducive to healthy functioning. One of the prime examples is experiencing flow during gambling. Any time someone participates in an 在离开心流这个话题之前，应该提到心流可能存在阴暗面。也就是说，心流也曾在不利于健康功能的活动中有报道。一个典型的例子是在赌博时体验心流。任何时候，当有人参与赌博活动时
activity that has a significant amount of risk, such as many illegal activities, the risk can focus a person’s attention in a way that is similar to flow. Another example involves the fascination for online gaming. Often people will become totally absorbed in the experience, forget about time, lose themselves in the activity, and experience flow. Therefore, it is important to understand that flow is a value-neutral state. That is, it can apply to either positive or negative behaviors. (For discussions about the addictive elements of flow in online gambling and gaming, see Trivedi & Teichert, 2018). 具有显著风险的活动，例如许多非法活动，风险可以以一种类似于心流的方式集中一个人的注意力。另一个例子涉及对在线游戏的迷恋。通常人们会完全沉浸在这种体验中，忘记时间，迷失在活动中，并体验到心流。因此，理解心流是一种价值中性的状态是很重要的。也就是说，它既可以适用于积极行为，也可以适用于消极行为。（关于在线赌博和游戏中心流成瘾元素的讨论，参见 Trivedi & Teichert, 2018）。
Measurement of Flow 心流测量
Several strategies have been developed to measure flow (Moneta, 2012). All of these assessments ask people to report on what they experienced when they recently engaged in various activities and the extent to which parameters of flow were present during a particular activity. However, differences emerge when the assessment questionnaire is designed to measure flow as a state or a trait. For example, in the Flow State Scale-2, the questions ask about what the person experienced “in the activity you just completed.” In the Dispositional Flow Scale-2, the questions ask about experiences “in your chosen activity” (Jackson & Ekland, 2002). Some scales also measure flow as a broad trait that occurs in many activities, whereas others measure it as a trait specific to a specific activity. Csikszentmihalyi and colleagues (see Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988) developed one of the more interesting ways to measure flow, which they called the experience sampling method (ESM). In the earliest version of this assessment, research participants wore a small beeper that sent a signal at random moments throughout the day. When the signal went off, the participant would complete a questionnaire as soon as possible that asked about what they were doing when the beeper sounded and how they felt in terms of the parameters of flow. Today, participants download an app to their phone that sends a signal and collects the data. The clear advantage of the ESM is that it can gather information about a person’s experience immediately after he or she has it. The ESM can also be adapted to other research topics in addition to flow. 已开发出多种策略来测量心流（Moneta, 2012）。所有这些评估都要求人们报告他们在最近参与各种活动时的体验，以及心流参数在特定活动中出现的程度。然而，当评估问卷设计为测量心流作为一种状态或特质时，差异就会出现。例如，在心流状态量表-2 中，问题询问的是个人在“刚刚完成的活动”中的体验。在特质心流量表-2 中，问题询问的是在“你选择的活动”中的体验（Jackson & Ekland, 2002）。有些量表还将心流测量为在许多活动中出现的广泛特质，而其他量表则将其测量为特定活动的特定特质。契克森米哈伊及其同事（参见 Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988）开发了一种更有趣的心流测量方法，他们称之为经验抽样法（ESM）。在这种评估的最早版本中，研究参与者佩戴了一个小蜂鸣器，它在一天中的随机时刻发出信号。 当信号响起时，参与者会尽快完成一份问卷，询问他们在蜂鸣器响起时正在做什么，以及他们在心流参数方面的感受。如今，参与者将一个应用程序下载到手机上，该应用程序会发送信号并收集数据。经验抽样法（ESM）的明显优势在于，它可以在一个人经历某事后立即收集相关信息。ESM 还可以适应除心流之外的其他研究主题。
Absorption and Curiosity 沉浸与好奇心
Research shows that there may be more to the flow experience than merely balancing skills and challenge. The aforementioned descriptions of the flow 研究表明，流畅体验可能不仅仅涉及技能与挑战的平衡。上述对流畅体验的描述
experience suggest several aspects that may be necessary for it to occur. What are these? The first is absorption or the ability to become deeply involved in an experience. Auke Tellegen suggested that the ability to be wrapped up in experience is a trait in which people vary in their ability to accomplish this at will (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). This trait impacts people’s ability to enter flow. Recall that Csikszentmihalyi says that “the autotelic personality” is a significant element of flow. 经验表明，有几个方面可能是实现这一点的必要条件。这些方面是什么？首先是沉浸，即能够深度投入到一个体验中。奥克·特尔 legen 提出，能够完全沉浸在体验中是一种特质，人们在按意愿实现这一点的能力上存在差异（Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974）。这一特质影响人们进入心流的能力。回想一下，Csikszentmihalyi 说“自发性人格”是心流的一个重要元素。
A study that examined individual fantasizing found that higher well-being was associated with the ability to control fantasies, more “vivid” fantasies, and greater absorption (Matsui & Kodama, 2004). A study of adolescents found that higher well-being, more prosocial behavior, and higher grade point averages were associated with more engaged living, which comprises social integration and absorption (Froh et al., 2010). Engaged living involves having a passion to help others and being completely immersed in one’s day-to-day activities. In contrast, one study found that people who were prone to adoring celebrities had lower well-being and their tendencies for absorption tended to acquire qualities of an addiction (Maltby, McCutcheon, Ashe, & Houran, 2001). One of the main goals of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is to be fully present and engaged in life. Building on the ideas of ACT, Trindade, Ferreira, Pinto-Gouveia, and Nooren (2016) created the Engaged Living Scale to measure involvement in daily life. 一项研究考察了个体的幻想，发现较高的幸福感与控制幻想的能力、更“生动”的幻想以及更强的沉浸感相关（Matsui & Kodama, 2004）。一项针对青少年的研究发现，较高的幸福感、更多的亲社会行为和更高的平均成绩与更投入的生活相关，这包括社会融合和沉浸感（Froh et al., 2010）。投入的生活意味着有帮助他人的热情，并完全沉浸在日常活动中。相比之下，一项研究发现，倾向于崇拜名人的人幸福感较低，他们的沉浸倾向往往具有成瘾的特征（Maltby, McCutcheon, Ashe, & Houran, 2001）。接纳与承诺疗法（ACT）的主要目标之一是全身心地投入生活。基于 ACT 的理念，Trindade, Ferreira, Pinto-Gouveia 和 Nooren（2016）创建了投入生活量表，以衡量日常生活的参与度。
Another factor related to well-being and flow is curiosity. Todd Kashdan has conducted considerable work on curiosity and found that its increase is associated with greater well-being, more frequent personal growth-oriented behaviors, more search for meaning, and greater persistence of meaning from day to day (Kashdan, 2009; Kashdan & Steger, 2007). Silvia and Kashdan (2018) defined curiosity as the desire to recognize, seek out, and prefer stimuli that are outside of one’s normal experience. Kashdan described trait curiosity in two dimensions: 1) exploration, or the disposition to seek out novel situations, and 2) absorption, or the disposition to be fully engaged in the situations. Clearly, young children are highly curious about their world. Without curiosity we would never be motivated to explore our environments, discover something new, find something different, and expand our potentials. 与幸福感和心流相关的另一个因素是好奇心。托德·卡什丹在好奇心方面进行了大量研究，发现好奇心的增加与更高的幸福感、更频繁的个人成长导向行为、更多的意义寻求以及日常意义感的持续增强有关（Kashdan, 2009; Kashdan & Steger, 2007）。西尔维亚和卡什丹（2018）将好奇心定义为对识别、寻求和偏好超出个人正常经验的刺激的渴望。卡什丹将特质好奇心分为两个维度：1）探索，即寻求新情境的倾向；2）沉浸，即完全投入情境的倾向。显然，幼儿对他们的世界充满好奇。没有好奇心，我们就不会有动力去探索环境，发现新事物，找到不同之处，并拓展我们的潜力。
Comments on the Theory of Flow 对心流理论的评论
The concept of flow is one of those psychological constructs that is immediately recognizable to many people. Further, the association between flow and well-being is also obvious to many. However, not all studies have supported the predictions of flow theory (see Moneta, 2012). Csikszentmihalyi reported that flow is produced by balancing one’s skills with the challenges of a specific situation that requires those skills (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Certainly, types of flow activities such as being in the zone during sports activities occur more often when a person is fully exercising learned skills and competencies in a context that provides high challenges and immediate feedback. However, it may be that the balance of the challenges and skills requirement for flow is problematic for a full understanding of flow, leisure, play, and relaxation. A few examples may help illustrate the problems. 心流的概念是那种许多人立刻就能识别的心理建构。此外，心流与幸福之间的关联对许多人来说也是显而易见的。然而，并非所有研究都支持心流理论的预测（参见 Moneta, 2012）。Csikszentmihalyi 报告称，心流是通过平衡个人的技能与特定情境的挑战而产生的，这种情境需要这些技能（Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002）。当然，像在体育活动中处于“最佳状态”这样的心流活动，更常发生在一个人在提供高挑战和即时反馈的情境中充分运用所学技能和能力时。然而，可能对于全面理解心流、休闲、游戏和放松来说，挑战和技能要求的平衡是有问题的。一些例子可能有助于说明这些问题。
One of the more frequently observed aspects of the flow experience is that it is not always present in a specific activity, or if it is present, then it may not be present throughout the duration of the activity. Just playing a thrilling game of tennis does not guarantee a flow experience. The challenge of the game may force moment-to-moment attention and bring a person to the edge of his or her skill level, and yet, the magic doesn’t happen and flow is not experienced. 心流体验中一个较为常见的方面是，它并非总是存在于特定活动中，或者即使存在，也可能不会贯穿整个活动过程。仅仅进行一场激动人心的网球比赛并不能保证产生心流体验。比赛的挑战可能迫使人们时刻保持注意力，并将个人推至其技能水平的极限，然而，神奇的体验并未发生，心流也未被体验到。
Conversely, even trained musicians may experience flow from pieces that are relatively easy to play but are nonetheless deeply moving. Several decades ago, Bill Moyers created an entire documentary on the song “Amazing Grace” (see Mannes, 1990). He found that this 19th-century song had found a special place in the hearts of many people all over the world. The emotions that this song evoked in people seemed to transcend barriers of race, religion, social class, and educational attainment. And yet the song itself is simple, and even inexperienced musicians can experience flow when playing the song or other simple songs as well. 相反，即使是训练有素的音乐家也可能从相对容易演奏但仍然深深打动人心的作品中体验到心流。几十年前，比尔·莫耶斯制作了一部关于歌曲《奇异恩典》的完整纪录片（参见 Mannes，1990）。他发现这首 19 世纪的歌曲在全世界许多人的心中占据了一个特别的位置。这首歌在人们心中唤起的情感似乎超越了种族、宗教、社会阶层和教育程度的界限。然而，这首歌本身很简单，甚至没有经验的音乐家在演奏这首歌或其他简单歌曲时也能体验到心流。
McQuillan and Conde (1996) found that the probability of flow when reading depended on whether the person had an interest in the book’s subject matter. In their study, fiction passages were more likely to enhance flow than were nonfiction passages because fiction is more personally engaging. Webster, Trevino, and Ryan (1993) studied flow and playfulness when people used computers. The researchers found that flow was fostered by intrinsic interest in and curiosity about the task. Such investigations seem to suggest that it is more difficult to experience flow when involved in a 麦克奎兰和康德（1996 年）发现，阅读时产生心流的可能性取决于个人是否对书籍的主题感兴趣。在他们的研究中，小说段落比非小说段落更有可能增强心流，因为小说更具个人吸引力。韦伯斯特、特雷维诺和瑞安（1993 年）研究了人们使用计算机时的心流和嬉戏性。研究人员发现，内在兴趣和对任务的好奇心促进了心流。这些研究似乎表明，当参与一项
task that lacks interest for its practitioners. 对从业者缺乏兴趣的任务。
Taking a different approach, Clarke and Haworth (1994) examined differences between flow (that is, when skills are balanced by challenges) and what they called optimal experiencing (that is, when skills slightly exceeded challenges). Note that Clarke and Haworth’s definition of optimal experiencing is somewhat unique and a bit confusing because Csikszentmihalyi also used the term optimal experiencing to describe flow. Nevertheless, Clarke and Haworth found that British college students perceived moments of optimal experiencing to be more enjoyable than moments of flow. Furthermore, students who spent a greater percentage of their time in optimal experiencing had higher well-being scores than students who spent more time in flow. In their study, well-being was related to flow but more strongly linked to optimal experiencing. American adolescents also reported more happiness when engaged in low-challenge, high-skills situations (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993). 采用不同的方法，Clarke 和 Haworth（1994）研究了心流（即技能与挑战平衡时）与他们所称的最佳体验（即技能略高于挑战时）之间的差异。请注意，Clarke 和 Haworth 对最佳体验的定义有些独特且略显混淆，因为 Csikszentmihalyi 也使用最佳体验这一术语来描述心流。尽管如此，Clarke 和 Haworth 发现，英国大学生认为最佳体验的时刻比心流的时刻更令人愉快。此外，在最佳体验中花费更多时间的学生比在心流中花费更多时间的学生拥有更高的幸福感得分。在他们的研究中，幸福感与心流相关，但与最佳体验的联系更为紧密。美国青少年在参与低挑战、高技能情境时也报告了更多的幸福感（Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993）。
A study that examined flow and subjective well-being in older persons (7086 years) found that higher-quality flow experiences were associated with well-being, but too-frequent flow experiences were associated with lower well-being. In this study the balance between challenge and skills did not predict subjective well-being (Collins, Sarkisian, & Winner, 2009). A small-scale study of flow found that individual descriptions of absorption at work did not always fit the definition of flow. In this study, a sense of meaning was more important to entering flow than a balance between challenge and skills (Wright, Sadlo, & Stew, 2007). Finally, Csikszentmihalyi (1997) reported that happiness and flow often go together, but not always. For instance, some people report positive experiences of flow at work, but at the same time, they may feel less happy at work than in other milieus (however, see Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009, for comments on the “paradox of work”). 一项研究考察了老年人（70 至 86 岁）的心流和主观幸福感，发现高质量的心流体验与幸福感相关，但过于频繁的心流体验与较低的幸福感相关。在这项研究中，挑战与技能之间的平衡并不能预测主观幸福感（Collins, Sarkisian, & Winner, 2009）。一项小规模的心流研究发现，个体对工作中沉浸状态的描述并不总是符合心流的定义。在这项研究中，意义感比挑战与技能之间的平衡对进入心流更为重要（Wright, Sadlo, & Stew, 2007）。最后，Csikszentmihalyi（1997）报告称，幸福和心流常常相伴，但并非总是如此。例如，有些人报告在工作中体验到了积极的心流，但与此同时，他们可能觉得在工作中不如在其他环境中幸福（然而，参见 Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009，对“工作悖论”的评论）。
None of these points means that a balance of skills and challenges is unimportant to flow. Indeed, a meta-analysis found that the balance of skills and challenges was a “robust contributor” to experiencing flow (Fong, Zaleski, & Leach, 2015). But the ability to experience flow, especially deep flow, clearly encompasses several factors and is difficult to capture in a simple formula. 这些观点并不意味着技能与挑战的平衡对心流不重要。事实上，一项元分析发现，技能与挑战的平衡是体验心流的“强有力因素”（Fong, Zaleski, & Leach, 2015）。但体验心流的能力，尤其是深度心流，显然包含多个因素，难以用简单的公式来捕捉。
Some of the problems with the construct may be due to the notorious difficulty of measuring it. Stopping a flow activity to fill out a psychological 一些与该构念相关的问题可能源于其众所周知的测量难度。停止一项流畅活动以填写心理问卷
questionnaire will generally end the flow experience. Indeed, Martin and Jackson (2008) found that different ways of measuring flow produced different research results. Some difficulties may be inherent in the construct itself. To begin with, flow is not simply an emotion. Antonella Delle Fave (2009) has described flow as “a multifaceted experiential state, in which cognitive, motivational and emotional components coexist in a coherent and complex reciprocal integration” (p. 285). Although that description may not clarify much for the average reader, the basic point is that flow is the result of several factors, all of which must be precisely balanced in order for it to occur and continue over time (also see Ceja & Navarro, 2009; Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). 问卷通常会结束流畅体验。事实上，马丁和杰克逊（2008 年）发现，不同的流畅度测量方法会产生不同的研究结果。一些困难可能是该构念本身固有的。首先，流畅体验不仅仅是一种情绪。安东内拉·德莱·法夫（2009 年）将流畅体验描述为“一种多方面的体验状态，其中认知、动机和情绪成分以连贯且复杂的方式相互融合”（第 285 页）。尽管这一描述对普通读者来说可能并不清晰，但基本观点是，流畅体验是多种因素的结果，所有这些因素都必须精确平衡，才能使其发生并随时间持续（另见塞哈和纳瓦罗，2009 年；中村和奇克森特米哈伊，2009 年）。
Delle Fave also suggested that a sense of meaning must be connected to the activity for the magic of flow to occur. For instance, other frequently reported contexts for flow are watching movies, participation in religious rituals, and listening to music (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). As with reading, the experience of getting absorbed in the movie, the music, or the ritual also requires an emotional connection with the activity (also note that the “skills” required in these activities are minimal). In particular, a religious ritual is only meaningful if a person has a personal connection with the underlying belief system or is open to spirituality. Therefore, the induction of flow experiences appears to be more than a simple matching of one’s skills with the challenges presented by an activity. Delle Fave 还指出，要产生心流的魔力，必须将意义感与活动联系起来。例如，其他经常报告的心流情境包括观看电影、参与宗教仪式和聆听音乐（Csikszentmihalyi, 1990）。与阅读一样，沉浸在电影、音乐或仪式中的体验也需要与活动有情感上的联系（也请注意，这些活动所需的“技能”是最低限度的）。特别是，宗教仪式只有在个人与潜在的信仰体系有个人联系或对灵性持开放态度时才有意义。因此，心流体验的诱导似乎不仅仅是将个人的技能与活动所呈现的挑战进行简单匹配。
Mindfulness 正念
The next perspective on well-being also asks us to pay attention to what is happening to us in the moment. As we will see shortly, however, the term mindfulness is used in several ways in the research literature. Ciarrochi, Kashdan, and Harris (2013) described mindfulness as “conscious awareness with an open, receptive attitude, of what is happening in the present moment” (p. 10). Shauna Shapiro and Linda Carlson (2009) provided a similar description: “Mindfulness is paying attention to what is occurring in one’s immediate experience with care and discernment” (p. 4, taken from Wallace & Bodhi, 2006). The shortest description might be that mindfulness is being aware of the present moment during our daily activities, including both the world outside us and our inner experiences. 下一个关于幸福感的视角也要求我们关注当下发生在我们身上的事情。然而，正如我们很快会看到的，正念这一术语在研究文献中有几种不同的用法。Ciarrochi、Kashdan 和 Harris（2013）将正念描述为“以开放、接纳的态度，有意识地意识到当前时刻正在发生的事情”（第 10 页）。Shauna Shapiro 和 Linda Carlson（2009）提供了类似的描述：“正念是带着关怀和洞察力关注一个人即时体验中正在发生的事情”（第 4 页，引自 Wallace & Bodhi，2006）。最简短的定义可能是，正念是在我们日常活动中对当前时刻保持觉知，包括外部世界和我们内在的体验。
Research on mindfulness has increased exponentially in the past few years. In 2003 there were 33 articles in academic journals with mindfulness in the 对正念的研究在过去几年中呈指数级增长。2003 年，学术期刊上有 33 篇包含正念关键词的文章。
title. By 2017 that number had increased to 691 articles, which represented an increase of almost 2,000%2,000 \% in 14 years (see Figure 4.2). 标题。到 2017 年，这一数字已增加到 691 篇文章，这代表了在 14 年内几乎增长了 2,000%2,000 \% （见图 4.2）。
Currently, research studies on mindfulness can be found in academic journals from many disciplines, and books about mindfulness fill the psychology sections of bookstores and online retailers. 目前，关于正念的研究可以在许多学科的学术期刊中找到，而关于正念的书籍也充斥着书店和在线零售商的心理学专区。
Research on mindfulness has expanded so rapidly that several metaanalyses have already summarized it in specific areas (see Creswell, 2017). You will recall that a meta-analysis combines the results from many individual studies and attempts to summarize the results of those studies. Meta-analyses focusing on the benefits of mindfulness have included the following topics: improving mental health (Spikerman, Pots, & Bohlmeijer, 2016), better work performance (Lomas et al., 2017), improved student performance in schools (Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, & Wallach, 2014), better health (Crowe et al., 2016), increased creativity (Lebuda, Zabelina, & Karwowski, 2016), improved weight loss (Olson & Emery, 2015), enhanced athletic performance (Sappington & Longsore, 2015), and better financial reasoning (Brown, Kasser, Ryan, Linley, & Orzech, 2009). 正念研究已经迅速扩展，以至于多个元分析已经在特定领域对其进行了总结（参见 Creswell, 2017）。您会记得，元分析结合了许多个别研究的结果，并试图总结这些研究的结果。专注于正念益处的元分析包括以下主题：改善心理健康（Spikerman, Pots, & Bohlmeijer, 2016），提高工作表现（Lomas et al., 2017），提升学生在学校的表现（Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, & Wallach, 2014），改善健康状况（Crowe et al., 2016），增强创造力（Lebuda, Zabelina, & Karwowski, 2016），改善减肥效果（Olson & Emery, 2015），提升运动表现（Sappington & Longsore, 2015），以及更好的财务推理能力（Brown, Kasser, Ryan, Linley, & Orzech, 2009）。
Clearly, many researchers view mindfulness as a tool that can be applied in numerous areas to enhance well-being. 显然，许多研究者认为正念是一种可以在多个领域应用的工具，以提升幸福感。
Figure 4.2 - Mindfulness Publications by Year 图 4.2 - 每年正念出版物数量
Publications on Mindfulness 正念出版物
Source: Courtesy of William C. Compton, PhD. 来源：威廉·C·康普顿博士提供
However, it is important to note that the concept of mindfulness can be confusing because there are two distinct definitions and research traditions associated with it. Unfortunately, specific research studies often do little to distinguish between these two traditions. We begin with Ellen Langer’s research and follow up with research based on the Buddhist tradition of mindfulness. 然而，值得注意的是，正念的概念可能会令人困惑，因为与之相关的有两种截然不同的定义和研究传统。不幸的是，具体的研究往往很少区分这两种传统。我们首先从艾伦·兰格的研究开始，然后跟进基于佛教正念传统的研究。
Ellen Langer's Approach to Mindfulness 艾伦·兰格的正念方法
The first perspective on mindfulness comes from Ellen Langer (1989) and represents a cognitive style that centers on awareness and the quality of attention we bring to everyday experiences. Langer found that a particular type of attention is related to increased well-being and better adaptation. 正念的第一个视角来自艾伦·兰格（1989 年），它代表了一种认知风格，这种风格以对日常体验的意识和注意力的质量为中心。兰格发现，特定类型的注意力与提升幸福感及更好的适应能力相关。
To get a better feel for what mindfulness is for Langer, it may be helpful to describe its opposite-mindlessness. When we are in a state of mindlessness, our thoughts wander, we are not paying attention, we are on automatic pilot, and we respond habitually to our world without thinking what we are actually doing or saying. We rely on rigid cognitive processing that may restrict our ability to respond reasonably or creatively. 为了更好地理解兰格所说的正念是什么，描述其对立面——心不在焉可能会有所帮助。当我们处于心不在焉的状态时，我们的思绪飘忽不定，我们没有集中注意力，我们处于自动驾驶模式，并且我们习惯性地对周围的世界做出反应，而不去思考我们实际上在做什么或说什么。我们依赖僵化的认知处理方式，这可能会限制我们合理或创造性地做出反应的能力。
Langer’s investigations of mindfulness began with an experiment in a nursing home. She and her colleague Judith Rodin (Langer & Rodin, 1976) performed a small intervention to investigate the sense of control. Some residents received a small houseplant to care for and were given minor increases in decisional control over their daily lives, whereas others were not given these opportunities. Her initial conclusions were that providing a sense of control and focusing attention on caring for something in their environment had an impact on the mortality of the residents. Later, problems with the research surfaced that cast doubt on the conclusions (see Coyne, 2014). Nevertheless, the experiment pointed Langer toward investigations into how paying attention to one’s environment might impact well-being. 兰格对正念的研究始于一个养老院的实验。她和她的同事朱迪思·罗丁（Langer & Rodin, 1976）进行了一项小型干预，以调查控制感。一些居民收到了一盆小型盆栽植物来照顾，并在日常生活中获得了轻微的决策控制权增加，而其他人则没有获得这些机会。她最初的结论是，提供控制感和将注意力集中在照顾环境中的某物上，对居民的死亡率有影响。后来，研究中出现的问题使人们对这些结论产生了怀疑（参见 Coyne, 2014）。尽管如此，这个实验使兰格转向了研究如何关注自己的环境可能会影响幸福感。
In another experiment, Langer and her colleagues sent out memos to several offices at their university (this era was before e-mail and texting; see Langer, 1989). The memos simply said, “Please return memo immediately to room 247 .” The memos were designed either to look exactly like usual memos or were different from usual ones. When memos were designed to look like usual ones, 90%90 \% of them were returned! Even 60%60 \% of those that looked different from normal memos were returned. Incredibly, most people 在另一项实验中，兰格和她的同事们向他们大学的几个办公室发送了备忘录（这个时代还没有电子邮件和短信；参见兰格，1989 年）。备忘录上只写着：“请立即将备忘录归还到 247 房间。”这些备忘录的设计要么与通常的备忘录完全相同，要么与通常的不同。当备忘录设计得像通常的那样时， 90%90 \% 被归还了！即使是看起来与正常备忘录不同的 60%60 \% 也被归还了。令人难以置信的是，大多数人
looked at the memo and blindly followed the instructions, despite the fact that the instructions were nonsensical. For Langer, the roots of mindlessness are found in habits, premature cognitive commitments to categories, and a focus on goals rather than on immediate processes. 查看了备忘录并盲目地遵循了指示，尽管这些指示毫无意义。对兰格来说，心不在焉的根源在于习惯、对类别的过早认知承诺，以及关注目标而非即时过程。
In Langer’s view, well-being is not associated with moving through life on automatic pilot but with actively participating in the ongoing experiences of life with attention and openness. Many of us go through life waiting for something important, significant, or meaningful to happen, and all the time we forget to notice our real lives as they unfold. Rock singer John Lennon once remarked that our life is happening now, at this moment, while we are obliviously waiting for our “real life” to begin. 在兰格的观点中，幸福并不与自动驾驶般地度过生活相关，而是与带着注意力和开放性积极参与生活的持续体验相关。我们中的许多人都在等待生活中发生一些重要、有意义或深刻的事情，而在此过程中，我们却忘记了去关注我们真实生活展开的每一刻。摇滚歌手约翰·列侬曾评论说，我们的生活正在此时此刻发生，而我们却茫然地等待着我们的“真正生活”开始。
However, mindfulness allows us the opportunity to experience our worlds with fresh eyes and ears. Langer proposed that mindfulness comprises three core qualities: It can help us to create new categories of experience, be open to new information, and see more than one point of view. In this way, mindfulness can aid in breaking down the rigid categories we use to make information processing easier at the expense of understanding and complexity. Langer (2009) stated that mindfulness “is a flexible state of mind-an openness to novelty, a process of actively drawing novel distinctions. When we are mindful, we are sensitive to context and perspective; we are situated in the present… When mindful, we are actively varying the stimulus field” (pp. 279-280). 然而，正念为我们提供了用全新的眼光和耳朵体验世界的机遇。兰格提出，正念包含三个核心品质：它可以帮助我们创造新的经验类别，对新信息保持开放，并看到不止一个观点。通过这种方式，正念可以帮助打破我们为了简化信息处理而使用的僵化类别，这些类别是以牺牲理解和复杂性为代价的。兰格（2009）指出，正念“是一种灵活的心智状态——对新颖事物的开放性，一个积极区分新颖事物的过程。当我们保持正念时，我们对情境和视角敏感；我们立足于当下……在正念状态下，我们积极变化刺激场”（第 279-280 页）。
Therefore, her understanding of mindfulness involves an active search for distinctions, novelty, and the unexpected, reducing our tendencies to prematurely evaluate, categorize, and judge our experiences. Finally, mindfulness can help us focus on the process of living our lives and use that focus to create new ways of thinking, acting, and feeling that are responsive to the ever-changing tapestry of our experiences. The old maxim to “stop and smell the roses” is a reminder that we must pay attention to our journey as well as our goals. Langer (2006) also applied her perspective on mindfulness to creativity. In her view, the creative process can be enhanced by the deliberate use of greater mindfulness and the paying of attention. 因此，她对正念的理解包括积极寻找差异、新奇和意外，减少我们过早评估、分类和判断我们经验的倾向。最后，正念可以帮助我们专注于生活的过程，并利用这种专注创造新的思考、行动和感受方式，以应对我们经验中不断变化的图景。古老的格言“停下来闻闻玫瑰”提醒我们，我们必须关注我们的旅程以及我们的目标。兰格（Langer，2006）还将她对正念的视角应用于创造力。在她看来，通过刻意使用更多的正念和关注，可以增强创造性过程。
Studies have found that Langer’s form of mindfulness is a useful facilitator of well-being in many contexts. It can be used to enhance classroom learning (Ritchart & Perkins, 2002), improve marital satisfaction (Burpee & Langer, 2005), and aid young girls in overcoming gender differences in learning mathematics (Anglin, Pirson, & Langer, 2008). Mindfulness has 研究发现，兰格的这种正念形式在许多情境中都是促进幸福感的有效手段。它可用于提升课堂学习效果（Ritchart & Perkins, 2002），改善婚姻满意度（Burpee & Langer, 2005），并帮助年轻女孩克服学习数学中的性别差异（Anglin, Pirson, & Langer, 2008）。正念具有
also helped reduce the use of stereotypes about aging (Djikic, Langer, & Stapleton, 2008) and the negative effects of social comparisons on creativity (Langer, Pirson, & Delizonna, 2010). A state of increased mindfulness also helped people regulate their heart rates (Delizonna, Williams, & Langer, 2009). Finally, the mindfulness practice of actively creating novel distinctions helped musicians perform pieces that were more enjoyable to their audience (Langer, Russell, & Eisenkraft, 2009). 也帮助减少了关于衰老的刻板印象的使用（Djikic, Langer, & Stapleton, 2008）以及社会比较对创造力的负面影响（Langer, Pirson, & Delizonna, 2010）。增强的正念状态还帮助人们调节心率（Delizonna, Williams, & Langer, 2009）。最后，积极创造新区别的正念练习帮助音乐家演奏出更受观众喜爱的作品（Langer, Russell, & Eisenkraft, 2009）。
Buddhist-Inspired Mindfulness 佛教启发的正念
The second perspective on mindfulness comes from Eastern psychology, especially Buddhism. For over 2,500 years, Buddhist meditative practices have included a practice called mindfulness. Within this venerable tradition, mindfulness is defined as an open or receptive awareness in which attention is focused on one’s ongoing immediate experience (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). Mindfulness meditation, however, adds another interesting element to the focused awareness described by Ellen Langer: attention to experience without attachment to one’s experiences. Such meditation involves a calm observation of one’s own ongoing experiences without automatic reactions or impulses to associated thoughts and memories. That is, not only is a person paying attention to immediate experiences, but that attention will have greater clarity and vividness as well as awaken a more accepting and nonjudgmental attitude toward all the contents of one’s immediate experience. 第二个关于正念的视角来自东方心理学，尤其是佛教。超过 2500 年来，佛教的冥想实践中包含了一种称为正念的练习。在这个古老的传统中，正念被定义为一种开放或接纳的意识，注意力集中在一个人正在进行的即时体验上（Brown & Ryan, 2003; Shapiro & Carlson, 2009）。然而，正念冥想为艾伦·兰格所描述的专注意识增加了一个有趣的元素：对体验的关注，但不执着于自己的体验。这种冥想涉及平静地观察自己正在进行的体验，不带有自动反应或对相关思想和记忆的冲动。也就是说，一个人不仅在关注即时体验，而且这种关注将具有更大的清晰度和生动性，并唤醒对即时体验所有内容的更接纳和非评判的态度。
The Buddhist monk Nyanaponika Thera (Nyanaponika, 1973) has used the term bare attention and stated, “By bare attention, we understand the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us, at the successive moments of perception. It is called ‘bare’ because it attends to the bare facts of a perception without reacting to them by deeds, speech or mental content” (p. vii). In mindfulness meditation, individuals are taught to allow their thoughts, images, and sensations to occur, observe these nonjudgmentally, and then let them dissipate as they are naturally replaced by other thoughts and sensations. 佛教僧侣尼亚那蓬尼卡·塞拉（Nyanaponika, 1973）使用了“裸注意”这一术语，并指出：“通过裸注意，我们理解的是对实际发生在我们身上和内心中的事物，在连续感知时刻的清晰而专一的觉知。之所以称为‘裸’，是因为它关注感知的裸事实，而不通过行为、言语或心理内容对其做出反应”（第 vii 页）。在正念冥想中，个体被教导允许他们的思想、图像和感觉发生，非评判性地观察这些，然后让它们自然地消散，被其他思想和感觉所取代。
A group of researchers proposed that this style of mindfulness should be defined by two components (Bishop et al., 2004). The first involves the self-regulation of attention, in which a person can sustain attention on immediate experience, inhibit secondary elaborative processing (that is, inhibit getting lost in thought), and also switch attention to a desired stimuli. 一组研究人员提出，这种正念风格应由两个组成部分来定义（Bishop 等人，2004 年）。第一部分涉及注意力的自我调节，即一个人能够持续关注即时体验，抑制次级的详细加工（也就是说，抑制陷入思考），并且还能将注意力切换到期望的刺激上。
Most of these skills are encapsulated by the concept of attentional switching (see similar idea in “Flow” above). The second component is a specific type of openness to experience encompassing curiosity, acceptance, and reductions in strategies normally used to avoid unwelcome aspects of experience. 大多数这些技能都包含在注意力切换的概念中（参见上文“心流”中的类似观点）。第二个组成部分是一种特定类型对经验的开放性，包括好奇心、接纳以及减少通常用来避免不愉快经验方面的策略。
In addition, the Buddhist-inspired style of mindfulness consists of three core elements: intention, attention, and attitude (Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). Intention comprises commitment and dedication to meditation practice. Attention refers to observing the contents of one’s experience. Attitude relates to how a person pays attention to experience. Jon Kabat-Zinn has said that mindfulness should be understood “not just as bare attention, but as an affectionate attention” (see Shapiro & Carlson, 2009, p. 11, original italics). Shauna Shapiro and Linda Carlson (2009) listed 12 attitudes toward one’s experience that are conducive to a Buddhist-inspired style of mindfulness (see Table 4.1). 此外，受佛教启发的正念风格包含三个核心要素：意图、注意力和态度（Shapiro & Carlson, 2009）。意图包括对冥想实践的承诺和奉献。注意力指的是观察个人体验的内容。态度则与一个人如何关注体验有关。乔恩·卡巴特-津恩（Jon Kabat-Zinn）曾说，正念应该被理解为“不仅仅是单纯的注意力，而是一种充满爱意的注意力”（参见 Shapiro & Carlson, 2009, p. 11，原文斜体）。肖娜·夏皮罗（Shauna Shapiro）和琳达·卡尔森（Linda Carlson）（2009）列出了 12 种对个人体验的态度，这些态度有助于形成受佛教启发的正念风格（见表 4.1）。
Acceptance: Seeing and acknowledging things as they are in the present moment. 接纳：看到并承认事物在当前时刻的真实状态。
Curiosity: A spirit of interest, investigation, and exploration. 好奇心：一种兴趣、探究和探索的精神。
Gentleness: A soft, considerate and tender quality; however, not passive, undisciplined, or indulgent. 温柔：一种柔和、体贴和细腻的品质；然而，并非被动、无纪律或放纵。
Letting go: Nonattachment, not holding on to thoughts, feelings, experience. 放下：不执着，不固守思想、情感、经验。
Loving-kindness: A quality embodying friendliness, benevolence, and love. 慈爱：一种体现友好、仁慈和爱的品质。
Nonattachment: Letting go of grasping and clinging to outcome and allowing the process to simply unfold. 非执着：放下对结果的执着和依恋，让过程自然展开。
Nonjudging: Impartial witnessing, observing the present moment without evaluation and categorization. 非评判：公正地见证，观察当下时刻，不进行评价和分类。
Acceptance: Seeing and acknowledging things as they are in the present moment.
Curiosity: A spirit of interest, investigation, and exploration.
Gentleness: A soft, considerate and tender quality; however, not passive, undisciplined, or indulgent.
Letting go: Nonattachment, not holding on to thoughts, feelings, experience.
Loving-kindness: A quality embodying friendliness, benevolence, and love.
Nonattachment: Letting go of grasping and clinging to outcome and allowing the process to simply unfold.
Nonjudging: Impartial witnessing, observing the present moment without evaluation and categorization.| Acceptance: Seeing and acknowledging things as they are in the present moment. |
| :--- |
| Curiosity: A spirit of interest, investigation, and exploration. |
| Gentleness: A soft, considerate and tender quality; however, not passive, undisciplined, or indulgent. |
| Letting go: Nonattachment, not holding on to thoughts, feelings, experience. |
| Loving-kindness: A quality embodying friendliness, benevolence, and love. |
| Nonattachment: Letting go of grasping and clinging to outcome and allowing the process to simply unfold. |
| Nonjudging: Impartial witnessing, observing the present moment without evaluation and categorization. |
Nonreactivity: Ability to respond with consciousness and clarity instead of automatically reacting in a habitual, conditioned way. 非反应性：能够以意识和清晰的方式回应，而不是自动地以习惯性、条件反射的方式反应。
Nonstriving: Non-goal oriented, remaining unattached to outcome or achievement. 非努力：非目标导向，对结果或成就保持无执念。
Openness (Beginner's Mind*): Seeing things freshly, as if for the first time. 开放性（初学者心态*）：以全新的视角看待事物，仿佛是第一次见到。
Patience: Allowing things to unfold in their time. 耐心：让事情在其适当的时间展开。
Trust: Developing a basic trust in your experience. 信任：培养对你经验的基本信任。
Nonreactivity: Ability to respond with consciousness and clarity instead of automatically reacting in a habitual, conditioned way.
Nonstriving: Non-goal oriented, remaining unattached to outcome or achievement.
Openness (Beginner's Mind*): Seeing things freshly, as if for the first time.
Patience: Allowing things to unfold in their time.
Trust: Developing a basic trust in your experience.| Nonreactivity: Ability to respond with consciousness and clarity instead of automatically reacting in a habitual, conditioned way. |
| :--- |
| Nonstriving: Non-goal oriented, remaining unattached to outcome or achievement. |
| Openness (Beginner's Mind*): Seeing things freshly, as if for the first time. |
| Patience: Allowing things to unfold in their time. |
| Trust: Developing a basic trust in your experience. |
The introduction of Buddhist-inspired mindfulness into Western psychology came primarily from a single psychologist: Jon Kabat-Zinn (1990, 1993). Over a 30-year career at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, he sponsored dozens of research studies, directed a variety of training programs, and authored several bestselling books, all on the exciting subject of mindfulness. Kabat-Zinn introduced mindfulness into Western psychology by working with medical patients who suffered from chronic pain that was unresponsive to medication therapies (see more of this research in Chapter 6 ). He called his program mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Since then, studies have found that MBSR and mindfulness can also help reduce a variety of psychological problems, such as anxiety and stress, probably by promoting cognitive, emotional, and physiological regulatory mechanisms (Kuyken et al., 2010; Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995; Mohan, Sharma, & Bijlani, 2011). In medical settings, the use of mindfulness and the MBSR program have been an effective adjunctive therapy for a wide range of problems. When studies examine the impact of mindfulness on psychological well-being, they have found that people who were more mindful throughout the day tended to also show enhanced selfawareness and reported more positive emotional states (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Improved mindfulness may also help increase self-regulation skills (Evan, Baer, & Segerstrom, 2009). Numerous studies have found stress- 将佛教启发的正念引入西方心理学主要归功于一位心理学家：乔恩·卡巴特-津恩（1990, 1993）。在马萨诸塞大学医学中心 30 年的职业生涯中，他资助了数十项研究，指导了多种培训项目，并撰写了几本关于正念这一激动人心主题的畅销书。卡巴特-津恩通过与那些对药物治疗无反应的慢性疼痛患者合作，将正念引入西方心理学（更多相关研究见第 6 章）。他称自己的项目为基于正念的压力减轻（MBSR）。自那时起，研究发现 MBSR 和正念还可以帮助减少各种心理问题，如焦虑和压力，这可能是通过促进认知、情感和生理调节机制实现的（Kuyken et al., 2010; Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995; Mohan, Sharma, & Bijlani, 2011）。在医疗环境中，正念和 MBSR 项目的使用已成为多种问题的有效辅助疗法。 当研究考察正念对心理福祉的影响时，发现那些在一天中更加保持正念的人往往也表现出更强的自我意识，并报告了更积极的情绪状态（Brown & Ryan, 2003）。提高的正念也可能有助于增强自我调节技能（Evan, Baer, & Segerstrom, 2009）。众多研究发现压力
reduction benefits, increased focusing abilities, better physical health, and greater subjective well-being (Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). Kirk Warren Brown and his colleagues (Brown et al., 2009) found that the practice of mindfulness helped reduce the gap between one’s desired income and one’s current income, the so-called financial desire discrepancies gap. That is, mindfulness helped people to “want what they had” in terms of income. One interesting study found that people who practiced mindfulness were perceived to be happier by other people (Choi, Karremans, & Barendregt, 2012). A recent review of studies examined changes in brain functioning and mindfulness (Gotink, Meijboom, Vernooij, Smits, & Hunink, 2016). The study found that MBSR and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy produced functional and structural changes in the brain similar to those changes found in studies of long-term practitioners of traditional Buddhist meditation. 减少压力的好处，提高专注能力，改善身体健康，以及更大的主观幸福感（Shapiro & Carlson, 2009）。Kirk Warren Brown 及其同事（Brown et al., 2009）发现，正念练习有助于缩小一个人期望收入与当前收入之间的差距，即所谓的财务期望差距。也就是说，正念帮助人们“想要他们所拥有的”收入。一项有趣的研究发现，练习正念的人被其他人认为更幸福（Choi, Karremans, & Barendregt, 2012）。最近的一项研究综述考察了大脑功能与正念的变化（Gotink, Meijboom, Vernooij, Smits, & Hunink, 2016）。研究发现，正念减压疗法（MBSR）和基于正念的认知疗法在大脑功能和结构上产生了变化，这些变化类似于长期练习传统佛教冥想的研究中所发现的变化。
New adaptations of mindfulness to psychotherapy seem to be appearing on a regular basis. In fact, the Buddhist-inspired style of mindfulness may be one of the more influential developments in modern styles of Western psychotherapy. As discussed above, the MBSR program has been used in a variety of therapeutic contexts. One of the better-known styles of therapy that uses this type of mindfulness is acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes & Smith, 2005). In their book Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Positive Psychology, Todd Kashdan and Joseph Ciarrochi (2013) gathered together several researchers who commented on the common threads found in mindfulness, ACT, and positive psychology. In addition to ACT and MBSR, forms of psychotherapy that use mindfulness include dialectical behavior therapy, mindfulness-based eating awareness training, mindfulness-based relationship enhancement, mindfulness-based art therapy, mindfulness-based relapse prevention, and the mindful parenting program (see Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). Indeed, Jeffery Martin (1997) proposed that the use of mindfulness is a common factor found in all successful styles of psychotherapy. 正念在心理治疗中的新应用似乎在定期出现。事实上，受佛教启发的正念风格可能是现代西方心理治疗风格中更具影响力的进展之一。如上所述，MBSR 项目已在多种治疗背景下使用。使用这种正念的较知名的治疗风格之一是接纳与承诺疗法（ACT；Hayes & Smith, 2005）。在他们的著作《正念、接纳与积极心理学》中，Todd Kashdan 和 Joseph Ciarrochi（2013）汇集了多位研究者，他们对正念、ACT 和积极心理学中的共同线索进行了评论。除了 ACT 和 MBSR，使用正念的心理治疗形式还包括辩证行为疗法、基于正念的饮食意识训练、基于正念的关系提升、基于正念的艺术疗法、基于正念的复发预防以及正念养育项目（参见 Shapiro & Carlson, 2009）。的确，Jeffery Martin（1997）提出，正念的使用是所有成功心理治疗风格中的共同因素。
Is Mindfulness a State or a Trait? 正念是状态还是特质？
You will remember that we raised the question of state versus trait in our discussion of flow. Clearly, the intent of most forms of mindfulness meditation is to induce a state of mindful awareness. Brown and Ryan (2003) proposed that mindfulness might also be a trait. If so, then presumably some people will be more mindful on a day-to-day basis than others, even without taking time to practice mindfulness meditation. Their 你会记得我们在讨论心流时提出了状态与特质的问题。显然，大多数正念冥想形式的意图是引发一种正念觉知的状态。布朗和瑞安（2003 年）提出，正念也可能是一种特质。如果是这样，那么可以推测，即使不花时间练习正念冥想，有些人也会在日常生活中比其他人更有正念。他们的
research suggested that this was the case. Currently, mindfulness is measured as both a state and a trait; the two can be complementary because anyone dispositionally impelled to mindfulness will also enter various states of mindfulness throughout the day. 研究表明情况确实如此。目前，正念被测量为一种状态和一种特质；这两者可以互补，因为任何倾向于正念的人也将在一天中进入各种正念状态。
Measurement of Mindfulness 正念的测量
Several questionnaires have been developed to measure both state and trait mindfulness. Brown and Ryan (2003) created the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) to measure dispositional mindfulness or trait mindfulness. Other questionnaires include the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer et al., 2008), the Langer Mindfulness Scale (Pirson, Langer, Bodner, & Zilcha-Mano, 2012), and the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008). (2)/(2)\frac{2}{2} One of the difficulties of measuring mindfulness is similar to that of measuring flow. That is, if you ask someone to fill out a questionnaire, you risk taking the person out of a mindfulness state. In addition, self-report measures that ask about how a person felt or acted “in the past” or how they act “in general” are subject to problems of memory bias. A systematic review of mindfulness assessment instruments concluded that all the current scales had problems and declined to recommend any scale for its “superior psychometric properties” (Park, Reilly-Spong, & Gross, 2013). In particular, this review found that all the questionnaires had poor content validity (referring to the extent the questionnaire taps into and measures all facets of the construct it says it measures). For mindfulness, this means that the questionnaires examined by Park, Reilly-Spong, and Gross did a poor job of measuring the full complexity of mindfulness. This is understandable because the term mindfulness can be used to denote a simple increase in awareness of one’s environment or a style of Buddhist meditation that can lead to spiritual enlightenment. How mindfulness and meditation effects are measured in contemplative practices is highlighted in Chapter 10. 已开发出多种问卷来测量状态正念和特质正念。Brown 和 Ryan（2003）创建了正念注意和觉知量表（MAAS），用于测量倾向性正念或特质正念。其他问卷包括五因素正念问卷（Baer 等人，2008）、Langer 正念量表（Pirson, Langer, Bodner, & Zilcha-Mano, 2012）和费城正念量表（Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008）。 (2)/(2)\frac{2}{2} 测量正念的困难之一与测量心流类似。也就是说，如果你让某人填写问卷，你可能会让这个人脱离正念状态。此外，询问个人“过去”的感受或行为，或他们“通常”如何行为的自我报告测量，容易受到记忆偏差的问题影响。一项关于正念评估工具的系统综述得出结论，所有当前量表都存在问题，并未推荐任何量表因其“优越的心理测量属性”（Park, Reilly-Spong, & Gross, 2013）。 特别是，这项回顾发现所有问卷的内容效度都很差（指问卷在多大程度上能够触及并测量其所声称要测量的构念的所有方面）。对于正念而言，这意味着帕克、雷利-斯庞和格罗斯所考察的问卷在测量正念的完整复杂性方面做得不好。这是可以理解的，因为“正念”一词可以用来表示对自身环境的简单提升意识，或者一种可以导致精神启蒙的佛教冥想方式。第 10 章重点介绍了在冥想实践中如何测量正念和冥想效果。 2_\underline{2} See https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/mindfulness-questionnaires-scales-assessments-awareness. 2_\underline{2} 请参阅 https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/mindfulness-questionnaires-scales-assessments-awareness。
Why Does Mindfulness Increase Well-Being? 为什么正念能提升幸福感？
The question of precisely how mindfulness works is just as difficult as finding a simple definition for it. That is, an explanation of how it works depends on how it has been defined. However, a few general terms are 正念究竟如何起作用的问题，就像为其找到一个简单定义一样困难。也就是说，对其作用机制的阐释取决于其定义方式。然而，有几个一般性的术语可以用来描述。
relevant. Most investigators agree that mindfulness increases a metacognitive perspective on thoughts and emotions. In other words, mindfulness fosters the ability to think about one’s own thought processes. Along with this, mindfulness allows what is called decentering, or the ability to evaluate the contents of consciousness with greater equanimity and less reactivity. Indeed, a study that examined physiological reactions in the brain found that mindfulness reduced intense reactivity to highly arousing and emotional stimuli (Brown, Goodman, & Inzlicht, 2012). The authors concluded that mindfulness “modulates neural responses in an early phase of affective [emotional] processing” (p. 93). That is, mindfulness has an effect early in the processing of emotional material. Mindfulness can be associated with more self-insight, which is generally considered to be advantageous; however, greater insight is also associated with higher anxiety and rumination (i.e., the “self-absorption paradox”). Harrington, Loffredo, and Perz (2014) found that mindfulness is associated with greater capacity for the healthy form of self-insight. Brown and Ryan (2003) proposed that mindfulness allows greater self-concordance or a better match between implicit cognitive processes (e.g., automatic, intuitive) and explicit processes (e.g., conscious, directed). Chang, Huang, and Lin (2015) found that mindfulness was associated with the fulfillment of the basic needs as proposed in self-determination theory (i.e., autonomy, relatedness, and competence). Garland, Farb, Goldin, and Fredrickson (2015) offered a theory of mindfulness based on the broaden-and-build model of positive emotion. They suggested that mindfulness allows a calm reappraisal of stressors permitting greater decentering and a subsequent focus on the positive aspects of the specific situation or life in general. In a later paper, Garland, Farb, Goldin, and Fredrickson (2015) expanded these ideas into the mindfulness-to-meaning theory. This perspective adds to their earlier model the notion of greater psychological flexibility and enhanced attention to inner experiences. All these processes culminate in a “deeper capacity for [eudaimonic] meaning-making and greater engagement with life” (p. 293). From a Buddhist perspective, mindfulness is effective because it allows a person to reevaluate one’s own sense of identity and to “let go” of the idea that “the self” is a stable and enduring psychological entity. More is presented from the Buddhist perspective in Chapter 10. 相关。大多数研究者认为，正念增强了元认知视角对思维和情绪的理解。换句话说，正念培养了思考自身思维过程的能力。此外，正念允许所谓的去中心化，即以更平和、更少反应性的方式评估意识内容的能力。事实上，一项研究通过检查大脑的生理反应发现，正念减少了对于高度唤起和情绪性刺激的强烈反应（Brown, Goodman, & Inzlicht, 2012）。作者总结道，正念“在情感处理的早期阶段调节神经反应”（第 93 页）。也就是说，正念在情绪材料的早期处理中产生影响。正念可以与更多的自我洞察力相关联，这通常被认为是优势；然而，更深的洞察力也与更高的焦虑和反刍（即“自我吸收悖论”）相关。Harrington, Loffredo, 和 Perz（2014）发现，正念与更健康的自我洞察力形式相关。 Brown 和 Ryan（2003 年）提出，正念能够带来更大的自我一致性，或者说能够更好地匹配内隐认知过程（例如，自动的、直觉的）和外显过程（例如，有意识的、有指向的）。Chang、Huang 和 Lin（2015 年）发现，正念与自我决定理论中提出的基本需求满足有关（即自主性、关联性和胜任力）。Garland、Farb、Goldin 和 Fredrickson（2015 年）基于积极情绪的扩展-建构模型提出了一个正念理论。他们认为，正念允许对压力源进行平静的再评估，从而实现更大的去中心化，并随后关注特定情境或生活的积极方面。在后续的一篇论文中，Garland、Farb、Goldin 和 Fredrickson（2015 年）将这些观点扩展为正念-意义理论。这一视角在他们早期的模型中增加了更大的心理灵活性和对内在体验的增强关注。所有这些过程最终形成了“更深的[幸福]意义建构能力和对生活的更大投入”（第 293 页）。 从佛教的角度来看，正念之所以有效，是因为它允许一个人重新评估自己的身份认同，并“放下”“自我”是一个稳定且持久的心理实体的观念。第 10 章将更详细地介绍佛教的观点。
Intense Mindfulness Experiences 强烈正念体验
As with the experience of flow, levels of intensity exist in the mindfulness experience. Buddhist psychology teaches that intense forms of mindfulness 与心流体验一样，正念体验也存在不同的强度水平。佛教心理学教导说，强烈的正念形式
may precede profound enlightenment experiences. These intense levels of mindfulness meditation are discussed in Chapter 10. Of course, there are other moments, outside of deep meditation experiences, when a person may experience a relatively intense form of mindfulness or absorbed attention to immediate experiences. In a study that looked at mindfulness and subjective well-being, Jacob and Brinkerhoff (1999) interviewed people who moved from the city to the country in search of a less complicated lifestyle that was closer to nature and allowed them to live more completely within their ecologically and environmentally based values. One respondent described a special moment: “Time … seems to stand still… The world for the moment appears whole and the mind moves toward a stillness… One’s being … appears to be drawn into the ongoing stream of perceived universal reality, with the potential for finding tranquility, union and wholeness” (p. 349). For many respondents in this study, these brief moments of intense mindfulness contributed to a deeper sense of subjective well-being. Greater mindfulness throughout the day permitted them to focus on the wonder that could be found in the everyday events of their world. 可能先于深刻的启蒙体验。这些高强度的正念冥想在第 10 章中有所讨论。当然，除了深度冥想体验之外，还有其他时刻，一个人可能会体验到相对强烈的正念或全神贯注于当下的体验。在一项关于正念和主观幸福感的研究中，Jacob 和 Brinkerhoff（1999）采访了那些从城市搬到乡村以寻求更简单、更贴近自然的生活方式，并使他们能够更完全地生活在基于生态和环境价值观中的人们。一位受访者描述了一个特别的时刻：“时间……似乎静止了……那一刻世界显得完整，心灵趋向平静……一个人的存在……似乎被吸入持续感知的宇宙现实之流中，有找到宁静、合一和完整的潜力”（第 349 页）。对于这项研究中的许多受访者来说，这些短暂而强烈的正念时刻有助于加深他们的主观幸福感。 一天中更多的正念使他们能够专注于在日常生活中发现的奇妙之处。
Ellen Langer's and Buddhist Mindfulness Compared 艾伦·兰格与佛教正念的比较
It is worth noting the contrast between a Buddhist approach to mindfulness and Ellen Langer’s perspective. In Langer’s style of mindfulness, a greater awareness of experience is a first step, and new information is then followed by active attempts to create new categories of knowledge, build new perspectives, or foster creativity. The new knowledge gained from being more mindful is used to actively create new ways of thinking about one’s life. 值得注意的是，佛教的冥想方法与艾伦·兰格的观点之间存在对比。在兰格的冥想风格中，对经验的更高觉知是第一步，随后通过积极尝试创建新的知识类别、构建新的视角或促进创造力来跟进新信息。通过更加专注所获得的新知识被用来积极创造新的思考个人生活的方式。
However, in the Buddhist style of mindfulness, no suggestion exists that the information gained should necessarily be used in any specific way. The process is simply to be aware of ongoing experience while creating an attitude of calm detachment from the experience. In fact, efforts to actively use the knowledge tend to create greater mental activity, a situation that hinders the ongoing experience of mindfulness meditation. A further difference with Langer’s approach is that the formal practice of Buddhist mindfulness meditation often involves attempts to deepen attention to one’s ongoing experience to extremely subtle levels of awareness with increased clarity and vividness (more on this in Chapter 10). 然而，在佛教式的正念中，并没有建议所获得的信息必须以任何特定方式使用。这个过程 simply 是在保持对持续经验的觉知的同时，创造出一种从经验中平静抽离的态度。事实上，积极使用这些知识的努力往往会造成更大的心理活动，这种情况会阻碍正念冥想的持续体验。与兰格的方法的另一个区别是，佛教正念冥想的正式练习通常包括尝试将注意力深入到对持续经验的极其微妙的觉知层面，以增加清晰度和生动性（更多内容见第 10 章）。
The Buddhist-inspired style of mindfulness is also associated with a 佛教启发的正念风格也与一种
different concept of well-being than in Langer’s approach. Langer’s style of mindfulness allows a person to increase happiness and life satisfaction by fostering a more stable and positive sense of self-identity. This is accomplished primarily through assisting the person in achieving selfdirected external goals, such as a better job or more satisfying relationships. In contrast, the truly Buddhist-inspired style of mindfulness places greater emphasis on equanimity, peace of mind, contentment, and compassion. Primarily, this is achieved by decreasing focus on self-identity and allowing insights into the transient and changeable nature of our everyday experiences. A person proficient in Buddhist-style mindfulness would not necessarily be characterized as “happy” in the sense it is usually defined in Western psychology, that is, as experiencing greater positive emotions and fewer negative emotions (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ricard, 2007). 与兰格的方法相比，幸福感的概念有所不同。兰格的正念风格通过培养更稳定和积极的自我认同感，使一个人能够增加幸福感和生活满意度。这主要通过帮助个人实现自我导向的外部目标来实现，比如更好的工作或更令人满意的人际关系。相比之下，真正受佛教启发的正念风格更强调平静、内心的平和、满足和慈悲。这主要通过减少对自我认同的关注，并洞察我们日常经验的短暂和可变性质来实现。一个精通佛教风格正念的人，并不一定会被西方心理学通常定义的“幸福”所描述，即体验更多的积极情绪和更少的消极情绪（Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ricard, 2007）。
The exponential growth in research on mindfulness has been rather extraordinary. As many researchers rush to publish articles on mindfulness, one of the biggest problems has been a rather obvious lack of clarity about the definition of mindfulness. To help clarify the term mindfulness, we present a general guideline to how it has been used in recent psychological research. 正念研究的指数级增长相当引人注目。随着众多研究者急于发表关于正念的文章，其中一个最大的问题是对正念定义的明显缺乏清晰性。为了帮助澄清正念这一术语，我们提供了一个关于其在近期心理学研究中如何使用的通用指南。
In some research studies mindfulness is defined as being more aware of one’s environment and bringing more attention to the experiences of the moment. This definition is close to Langer’s use of the term and is associated with being aware of and changing both habitual behaviors and patterns of thinking. This type of mindfulness is not true mindfulness meditation. 在一些研究项目中，正念被定义为更加意识到自己的环境，并将更多的注意力集中在当下的体验上。这个定义接近于兰格对这一术语的使用，并与意识到并改变习惯性行为和思维模式相关联。这种类型的正念并不是真正的正念冥想。
Other research studies define mindfulness as absorbed focusing on the experiences of the moment. The object of this focusing can be a physical or sensual experience or a type of disciplined self-reflection on internal states. When the object of attention is physical sensations, then this type of mindfulness is often referred to as savoring (see the next topic in this chapter). For example, a common exercise for this type of mindfulness is to eat a raisin or an orange extremely slowly so that one’s attention is totally absorbed with the sensations. When the object of focusing is internal emotional or cognitive states, then the goal is to bring more awareness to one’s own subjective experiences without getting distracted or sidetracked by other experiences. This is similar to the goal of many forms of psychotherapy, that is, to gain insight into one’s psychological processes. This is also not true of 其他研究将正念定义为全神贯注于当下体验的状态。这种专注的对象可以是身体或感官体验，也可以是对内在状态的一种有纪律的自我反思。当注意力的对象是身体感觉时，这种类型的正念通常被称为品味（见本章下一主题）。例如，这种正念的常见练习是极其缓慢地吃一颗葡萄干或一个橙子，以便将注意力完全集中在感觉上。当专注的对象是内在的情绪或认知状态时，目标是将更多的觉知带入到自己的主观体验中，而不被其他体验分心或偏离轨道。这与许多形式的心理治疗的目标相似，即获得对自己心理过程的洞察。这也不符合
mindfulness meditation. 正念冥想。
The third way that mindfulness is used in research is based on the initial stages of mindfulness meditation. In this definition, the activities of the previous two types are combined and additional activities are added. Mindfulness of this type involves being aware of one’s environment, plus focused attention to experiences, plus a willingness to allow moment-to-moment experience to enter awareness and then be dispassionately observed and finally allowed to dissipate as the next experience emerges in awareness. The dispassionate awareness paired with the willingness to allow all experiences, whether positive or negative, to emerge and then dissipate or flow through awareness is the core idea behind mindfulness meditation. 正念在研究中应用的第三种方式基于正念冥想的初始阶段。在这个定义中，前两种类型的活动被结合在一起，并增加了额外的活动。这种类型的正念包括对自己环境的觉知，加上对体验的专注注意力，再加上愿意让时刻变化的体验进入意识，然后被冷静地观察，最终允许其在下一个体验进入意识时消散。冷静的觉知与愿意让所有体验（无论是积极的还是消极的）出现并随后消散或通过意识流动，是正念冥想背后的核心思想。
Importantly, these three general types of mindfulness are not equivalent in terms of their impact on behavior, personality, or well-being. Sad to report, however, the term mindfulness is used in most research without any further clarification. In addition, even the third use of mindfulness mentioned above describes only the initial stages of mindfulness meditation in the Buddhist tradition. A discussion of how mindfulness meditation is understood in contemplative spiritual practices is given in Chapter 10. 重要的是，这三种一般类型的正念在行为、人格或幸福感方面的影响并不等同。然而，遗憾的是，大多数研究中使用“正念”这一术语时并未进行进一步的澄清。此外，即使是上述提到的第三种正念用法，也仅描述了佛教传统中正念冥想的初始阶段。关于如何在沉思性灵性实践中理解正念冥想的讨论将在第 10 章中给出。
Savoring 品味
Most people have paused in the middle of an activity to fully experience something pleasurable. It could be taking time to really taste an ice cream cone on a hot summer day or absorbing all of one’s bodily sensations while sitting quietly on an isolated beach at sunset. Fred Bryant and Joseph Veroff (2007; Bryant, 1989) referred to such moments as savoring. It is an awareness of pleasure along with deliberate attempts to focus attention on the sensation and delight in it. In a sense, savoring is the experience of seeking to extract every nuance and association contained in the complexity of a pleasurable experience. 大多数人在活动中途暂停，以充分体验某种愉悦。这可能是在炎热的夏日里花时间真正品尝一个冰淇淋蛋筒，或是在日落时分静静地坐在一个偏僻的海滩上，全身心感受身体的每一个感觉。弗雷德·布莱恩特和约瑟夫·韦罗夫（2007 年；布莱恩特，1989 年）将这些时刻称为“品味”。这是一种对愉悦的感知，同时伴随着刻意将注意力集中在感觉上并享受其中的努力。从某种意义上说，品味是试图从愉悦体验的复杂性中提取每一个细微差别和关联的经历。
Bryant and Veroff identified four basic types of savoring: 1) basking, or receiving praise and congratulations; 2) marveling, or getting lost in the wonder of a moment; 3) luxuriating, or indulging in a sensation; and 4) thanksgiving, or expressing gratitude. They also suggested five basic ways to enhance and promote the possibility of savoring. The first is absorption, or allowing oneself to be immersed in the experience. Of course, it is best if a person allows enough time to really immerse in the experience. Because a person must focus on sensations, the second is sharpening the senses, or fixating on one sensation while blocking out others. It also helps create a savoring experience if the sensation is more complex and nuanced. For instance, most people know that what differentiates a chef-inspired gourmet dinner from an ordinary meal is the complexity, variety, and subtlety of the former. The third way to promote savoring is through memory building. Here the idea is to do something that will help you remember the experience later on. Indeed, this is why many people buy souvenirs: to help them recall moments of joy or savoring. Fourth, one can help foster savoring by sharing with others, for most people automatically seek out others with whom to 布莱恩特和韦罗夫确定了四种基本的品味类型：1）沐浴，即接受赞美和祝贺；2）惊叹，即沉浸在一刻的奇妙之中；3）奢华享受，即沉溺于一种感觉；4）感恩，即表达感激之情。他们还提出了五种基本方法来增强和促进品味可能性。第一种是沉浸，即允许自己完全沉浸在体验中。当然，如果一个人有足够的时间真正沉浸在这种体验中，那是最理想的。因为一个人必须专注于感觉，第二种是锐化感官，即专注于一种感觉，同时屏蔽其他感觉。如果感觉更加复杂和细腻，也有助于创造品味的体验。例如，大多数人都知道，区分厨师灵感激发的美食晚餐与普通餐点的，是前者的复杂性、多样性和微妙性。第三种促进品味的方法是通过记忆构建。这里的想法是做一些能帮助你在以后记住这次体验的事情。确实，这就是为什么许多人购买纪念品：帮助他们回忆起快乐的时刻或品味的瞬间。 第四，通过与他人分享可以帮助培养品味，因为大多数人会自然而然地寻找他人一起分享
share their positive experiences. Indeed, savoring appears to be enhanced when the experience is shared with others. The fifth way to promote savoring is self-congratulation. This suggestion may initially seem a bit odd. However, the idea is to allow you to feel good about having had an experience of savoring, to relish in the experience, and even permit yourself a bit of healthy pride. Finally, a few factors can inhibit savoring. Too much stress, too little time, or being too self-conscious can all interfere with attempts to create a savoring experience. 分享他们的积极体验。事实上，当体验与他人分享时，品味似乎会得到增强。促进品味的第五种方法是自我祝贺。这个建议起初可能看起来有点奇怪。然而，其目的是让你对拥有一次品味的体验感到良好，享受这次体验，甚至允许自己有一点点健康的自豪感。最后，一些因素可能会抑制品味。过多的压力、太少的时间或过于自我意识都会干扰创造品味体验的尝试。
Research on savoring has found that it can increase one’s sense of happiness (Jose, Lim, & Bryant, 2012). Additional research has suggested that other factors explain how savoring impacts well-being. For example, a study by Ramsey and Gentzler (2015) found that savoring occurred throughout the life span, but younger adults (who perceived they had more time to live) reported greater savoring. Smith and Hollinger-Smith (2015) found that for older adults there was a positive relationship between greater savoring, more resilience, and higher well-being. However, the relationship between savoring and well-being was stronger for people with lower resilience, suggesting that for people who were already flourishing savoring had a smaller impact on well-being. In summary, Bryant and Veroff seem to be saying that we can do more than simply stop and smell the roses. We can stop and really savor the experience of the roses. 对品味的研究发现，它可以增强一个人的幸福感（Jose, Lim, & Bryant, 2012）。进一步的研究表明，其他因素解释了品味如何影响幸福感。例如，Ramsey 和 Gentzler（2015）的一项研究发现，品味贯穿整个生命周期，但年轻成年人（认为自己有更多时间生活的人）报告了更高的品味。Smith 和 Hollinger-Smith（2015）发现，对于年长成年人，更高的品味、更强的韧性和更高的幸福感之间存在正相关关系。然而，对于韧性较低的人来说，品味与幸福感之间的关系更为强烈，这表明对于那些已经蓬勃发展的人来说，品味对幸福感的影响较小。总之，Bryant 和 Veroff 似乎在说，我们不仅仅可以停下来闻闻玫瑰花香。我们可以停下来，真正品味玫瑰花的体验。
Peak Performance 巅峰表现
Although deep flow is often associated with the feeling of being in the zone, does that mean that people actually perform better while in flow? Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) noted that athletes will often experience flow during those moments when they feel as if they are performing at their best -when they feel “hot.” The following quote illustrates one such moment: "During one particular swim meet … I was delegated to swim ‘third leg’ on a freestyle relay team… Well, I hit the water, and I remember nothing else about the race, except my coach’s ecstatic face when I lifted my head. Somehow I had come in ahead of everyone and put our team out front… To this day I can never remember doing that well in another swim meet. It definitely was not my usual level of functioning (Privette, 1981, p. 60). It seems clear that this athlete had a profound flow experience during the meet. But is it true that being in flow causes athletes to perform at their best? 尽管深度心流通常与“进入状态”的感觉相关联，但这是否意味着人们在心流状态下实际上表现得更好？杰克逊和奇克森特米哈伊（1999 年）指出，运动员通常会在感觉自己表现最佳的时刻体验到心流——当他们感觉“火热”时。以下引述展示了这样一个时刻：“在一次特别的游泳比赛中……我被分配到自由泳接力队的‘第三棒’……我入水后，对比赛的其他部分一无所知，只记得当我抬起头时教练那狂喜的面孔。不知怎么的，我领先了所有人，使我们的队伍处于领先位置……直到今天，我再也记不起在任何其他游泳比赛中表现得如此出色。这绝对不是我的常规水平（普里维特，1981 年，第 60 页）。”显然，这位运动员在比赛中经历了深刻的心流体验。但心流状态是否真的能让运动员发挥出最佳水平呢？
The evidence is that simply being in flow and feeling that you’re performing 证据表明，仅仅处于心流状态并感受到自己正在出色地完成任务，
better does not always translate into objectively better performance. One study found that flow related positively to actual performance in athletes. However, it was primarily the challenge component that was responsible, not the athlete’s skills (Stavrou, Jackson, Zervas, & Karteroliotis, 2007). Another study, this one of marathon runners, found that the experience of flow or being in the zone was related to future motivation to run, but not to performance (Schuler & Brunner, 2009). 更好并不总是转化为客观上更好的表现。一项研究发现，心流与运动员的实际表现呈正相关。然而，主要起作用的是挑战成分，而不是运动员的技能（Stavrou, Jackson, Zervas, & Karteroliotis, 2007）。另一项针对马拉松跑者的研究发现，心流体验或处于“最佳状态”与未来的跑步动机有关，但与表现无关（Schuler & Brunner, 2009）。
Peak performance is the term Gayle Privette (1981,1983)(1981,1983) used to describe those moments when we perform at a level beyond our normal level of functioning. It is conceptualized as behavior that is “more efficient, more creative, more productive, or in some ways better than [the person’s] ordinary behavior … and may occur in any facet of human activity: intellectual, emotional, or physical” (Privette & Landsman, 1983, p. 195). Almost everyone can recall at least one incident in which he or she somehow performed far better than normal. Some people may recall a superior performance on an exam, others may remember an incident of unusual courage or perseverance, still others an episode like the one quoted above of an athletic performance that exceeded what the person believed was his capacity. As a dramatic example of peak performance, Privette (1983) cited the experience of someone who saved farm animals trapped by a dangerous fire: 巅峰表现是盖尔·普里维特（Gayle Privette）用来描述那些我们表现超出正常水平时刻的术语。它被概念化为一种“更高效、更有创造力、更有生产力，或在某些方面比[个人]的普通行为更好的行为……并且可能发生在人类活动的任何方面：智力、情感或体力”（Privette & Landsman, 1983, p. 195）。几乎每个人都能回忆起至少一次他或她表现远超正常水平的事件。有些人可能记得在一次考试中表现出色，其他人可能记得一次不同寻常的勇气或毅力事件，还有一些人可能记得像上文引用的那样，一次超出个人认为自身能力的体育表现。作为巅峰表现的一个戏剧性例子，普里维特（1983）引用了某人拯救被危险火灾困住的农场动物的经历：
The barn caught fire from a brush fire! The children were safe, but animals in an adjacent shed were not… I had no tools, and the oak boards were thick-nailed with 20-penny nails! [I ran to the shed and] pulled at a board and it came off with ease, as if a wrecking bar was being used. The animals were free. After the fire died away it took five minutes to straighten the nails and remove them from the oak plank… On inspection we verified that the oak board was well attached to the locust posts, and removing it by hand was virtually impossible. But it happened to me. (p. 196) 谷仓被灌木丛火灾引燃了！孩子们安然无恙，但相邻棚屋里的动物却未能幸免……我手头没有工具，橡木板上钉着 20 分钱的厚钉子！[我跑到棚屋，]拉下一块板，它轻易地脱落了，仿佛使用了撬棍一般。动物们得救了。火势熄灭后，我花了五分钟才把钉子弄直并从橡木板上拔出来……经过检查，我们确认橡木板牢牢地固定在洋槐柱子上，用手拆除几乎是不可能的。但这确实发生在我身上。（第 196 页）
For most people, such an experience is superbly memorable-but they have no conception of how it happened or how to make it happen again. 对于大多数人来说，这样的经历是非常难忘的——但他们并不清楚它是如何发生的，也不知道如何让它再次发生。
Note that Privette (1981) defined peak performance as “behavior that transcends or goes beyond predictable functioning to use a person’s 请注意，普里维特（1981 年）将巅峰表现定义为“超越或超出可预测功能的行为，以发挥一个人的潜能”
potential more fully than could be reasonably expected” (p. 58). That is, peak performance is superior behavior at a task, not just a subjective experience while engaged in the task, as with flow. Privette stated that peak performance is not a specific type of activity; rather, it is an especially high level of functioning. That is, peak performance is not specific to any particular context, activity, or situation. It can occur in any activity-it is the “full use of any human power” (Privette, 1983, p. 1362). Earlier, Privette (1965) referred to the same phenomena as transcendent functioning. In her view, it is a universal potential in human beings, and almost anyone can show peak performance under the right conditions (Privette & Landsman, 1983). “比合理预期的潜力更充分地发挥”（第 58 页）。也就是说，巅峰表现是在任务中的卓越行为，而不仅仅是在参与任务时的主观体验，如同心流状态。普里维特指出，巅峰表现不是一种特定的活动；相反，它是一种特别高的功能水平。也就是说，巅峰表现不特定于任何特定的背景、活动或情境。它可以在任何活动中发生——它是“任何人类力量的充分运用”（普里维特，1983 年，第 1362 页）。早些时候，普里维特（1965 年）将同一现象称为超越性功能。在她看来，这是人类的一种普遍潜力，几乎任何人在适当的条件下都能展现出巅峰表现（普里维特和兰兹曼，1983 年）。
Privette’s investigations have found that peak performance can be described by four parameters: 1) clear focus on self, object, and relationship; 2) intense involvement in the experience; 3) a strong intention to complete a task; and 4) a spontaneous expression of power. Although Privette’s investigations reveal that many people in varied situations have experienced moments of peak performance, it is still difficult to understand the precise triggers for the experience. A peak performance can also happen in two different ways. The quote given above about the fire speaks to a spontaneous moment of peak performance that happened during a crisis. Incidents like these require no previous training and are not deliberately induced. Examples of this type include incidents of unusual courage during a crisis. The other type of peak performance is associated with superior performance at a learned skill. People will train for years to master a specific skill, and then a peak performance happens without planning or expectation. The swimmer’s comment that opened this section is an example of this second type of peak performance. Often, it is associated with sports performance, athletic competition, or creativity. 普里维特的调查发现，巅峰表现可以用四个参数来描述：1）对自我、对象和关系的清晰关注；2）对体验的深度投入；3）完成任务的强烈意图；4）力量的自发表达。尽管普里维特的调查揭示了许多人在不同情境下都经历过巅峰表现的时刻，但仍然难以理解引发这种体验的确切触发因素。巅峰表现也可以以两种不同的方式发生。上文关于火灾的引述说明了在危机中自发产生的巅峰表现时刻。这类事件不需要事先训练，也不是故意引发的。这类例子包括在危机中表现出的非凡勇气。另一种巅峰表现与在习得技能上的卓越表现相关。人们会经过多年的训练来掌握一项特定技能，然后在不经计划或预期的情况下发生巅峰表现。本节开头引用的游泳运动员的话就是这种第二种巅峰表现的例子。 通常，它与体育表现、竞技比赛或创造力相关联。
Source: From the archives of Randy Glasbergen cartoons. 来源：兰迪·格拉斯伯格漫画档案。
Peak Performance in Sports 巅峰表现：体育中的最佳状态
Sport psychologists have eagerly adopted Privette’s idea of peak performance and applied it to sports, athletics, and other skill-based activities (Bourne & Healy, 2015; Williams, 1993). Despite the difficulty in determining just what it takes to make an athlete “hot,” a tremendous amount of research has been conducted on how to increase the probability of peak performance in athletics. Because the flow experience has often been compared to being in the zone during an athletic event, one might reasonably ask if flow is involved. Williams and Krane (1993) addressed the relationship between peak performance and flow in this way: “One may be in flow and not necessarily have a peak performance; however, when an athlete experiences peak performance, he/she appears to be in a flow state” (p. 140). 运动心理学家热切地采纳了普里维特（Privette）的巅峰表现理念，并将其应用于体育、田径和其他技能型活动（Bourne & Healy, 2015; Williams, 1993）。尽管确定使运动员达到“火热”状态所需的条件颇具难度，但已有大量研究探讨了如何提高运动员巅峰表现的概率。由于流畅体验常被比作在体育赛事中进入“ZONE”状态，人们可能会合理地询问流畅体验是否参与其中。威廉姆斯和克雷恩（1993）以这种方式探讨了巅峰表现与流畅体验之间的关系：“一个人可能处于流畅状态，但不一定会有巅峰表现；然而，当运动员体验到巅峰表现时，他/她似乎处于流畅状态”（第 140 页）。
Privette (1981) contended that the key to peak performance was to maintain a clear focus on both self and object and maintain a strong sense of self in Privette（1981）认为，达到巅峰表现的关键在于同时保持对自我和对象的清晰关注，并保持强烈的自我意识
relationship with the object. The object could be almost anything, but it must be something that evokes in the person deep commitment or intense fascination. These elements help to produce an intense involvement. Privette (1981) stated that “the task that elicits peak performance represents an intrinsic value to the person and culminates in a direct, active engagement with the valued subject” (p. 64). From this broad perspective, peak performance is most often found in activities or situations that a person is deeply involved with, committed to, absorbed in, or emotionally connected with. 与对象的关系。对象几乎可以是任何东西，但必须能唤起个人的深度承诺或强烈迷恋。这些元素有助于产生强烈的投入。Privette（1981）指出，“引发巅峰表现的任务对个人而言具有内在价值，并最终导致与所重视主题的直接、积极互动”（第 64 页）。从这一广泛视角来看，巅峰表现最常见于个人深度参与、承诺、沉浸或情感连接的活动或情境中。
Peak Performance in Elite Athletes 精英运动员的巅峰表现
In a study that involved interviews with hundreds of elite athletes, Garfield and Bennett (1984) found eight conditions that accompanied those moments when actual performance was at its best: 在一项涉及对数百名精英运动员进行访谈的研究中，Garfield 和 Bennett（1984）发现了八种条件，这些条件伴随着实际表现最佳的时刻：
Mentally relaxed, a sense of calm, a sense of high concentration, and often a sense that time had slowed down. 精神放松，一种平静感，高度集中的感觉，并且常常觉得时间变慢了。
Physical relaxation with loose and fluid movements. 身体放松，动作松散流畅。
Self-confidence and optimism even in the face of challenges. 即使在面对挑战时也保持自信和乐观。
Focus on the present and a sense that one’s body performs automatically. 专注于当下，感觉自己的身体自动运作。
High energy level along with positive emotions, such as joy, as well as a sense of being “hot” or “charged.” 高能量水平，伴随着积极情绪，如快乐，以及一种“热情”或“充满活力”的感觉。
Extraordinary awareness of one’s own body. Often this is accompanied by an uncanny ability to know what the other athletes are going to do and the ability to respond instantly to them. 对自己身体的超常感知。通常，这伴随着一种不可思议的能力，能够预知其他运动员将要做什么，并且能够立即做出反应。
A sense of total control without undue effort to create or maintain that control. 完全控制感，而不需要过度努力去创造或维持这种控制。
“In the cocoon.” This refers to a sense that one is in an envelope that allows one to be protected from distractions. Additionally, it allows easy access to one’s powers and skills. “在茧中。”这指的是一种感觉，即一个人处在一个保护自己免受干扰的包裹中。此外，它还让人能够轻松地接触到自己的力量和技能。
The similarity of these descriptions to flow is readily apparent, for almost all of the characteristics of flow are represented in this list. Research with top-performing athletes has found that in addition to flow experiences, those who perform better have a psychological advantage. Williams and Krane (1993) state that most coaches acknowledge that once a certain skill level is achieved then as much as 90%90 \% of athletic success may be due to psychological factors. 这些描述与心流的相似性显而易见，因为心流的几乎所有特征都在这份清单中有所体现。对顶尖运动员的研究发现，除了心流体验外，表现更佳的运动员还具有心理优势。威廉姆斯和克兰（1993 年）指出，大多数教练承认，一旦达到一定的技能水平，那么多达 90%90 \% 的体育成功可能归因于心理因素。
Training for Peak Performance 巅峰表现训练
Sport psychologists have developed a wide range of training programs to help athletes develop to their full potential. Greenspan and Feltz (1989) reviewed studies that investigated the effectiveness of various psychological interventions to increase levels of performance. The investigations looked at athletes from diverse sports, including figure skating, baseball, karate, and gymnastics, and concluded that psychological interventions may be helpful in improving the performance of adult athletes in competitive situations. The range of techniques used by coaches to increase performance to peak levels have also increased. Rijken et al. (2016) conducted a pilot study that increased performance of soccer players by using biofeedback both of brain wave activity and heart rate variability. For several years, athletes have been using sensory deprivation tanks or float tanks to increase performance. Recently, this method has been renamed as restricted environment stimulation therapy (REST). 运动心理学家已经开发出多种训练项目，以帮助运动员充分发挥其潜力。Greenspan 和 Feltz（1989）回顾了研究各种心理干预措施有效性的研究，以提升表现水平。这些研究考察了来自不同运动项目的运动员，包括花样滑冰、棒球、空手道和体操，并得出结论：心理干预可能有助于提高成年运动员在竞争环境中的表现。教练用来提升表现至巅峰水平的技术范围也在增加。Rijken 等人（2016）进行了一项初步研究，通过使用脑波活动和心率变异性生物反馈，提高了足球运动员的表现。多年来，运动员一直使用感官剥夺舱或漂浮舱来提升表现。最近，这种方法被重新命名为限制环境刺激疗法（REST）。
Because such interventions can be helpful, how can one take advantage of them? Beginning with flow, or being in the zone, sports psychologist Susan Jackson joined with Csikszentmihalyi (1999) to offer several practical hints for induction in the zone in athletic performance: 1) move beyond your comfort zone and challenge yourself; 2) focus on the process or the moment-by-moment activity; 3) be self-aware, not self-conscious; 4) believe in your skills and stop nagging self-doubt; 5) “set the stage,” or do all the necessary preliminary preparations before the competition; and 6) practice a simple meditation exercise to help focus on the present and control unnecessary, distracting thoughts. Because meditation is important for peak performance, Fatemi, Ward, and Langer (2016) suggested that a Langerian type of mindfulness would be a good choice to enhance peak performance. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi suggested that athletes set up environments so that flow may occur, practice cognitive control over distractions, and prepare for competitions. 因为这样的干预措施可能有所帮助，那么如何利用它们呢？从心流状态，或者说进入“区域”开始，运动心理学家苏珊·杰克逊与奇克森特米哈伊（1999 年）共同提出了几个实用的建议，以帮助运动员在比赛中进入“区域”：1）超越自己的舒适区，挑战自我；2）专注于过程或时刻进行的活动；3）保持自我意识，而不是自我意识过剩；4）相信自己的技能，停止无谓的自我怀疑；5）“搭建舞台”，即在比赛前做好所有必要的准备工作；6）练习简单的冥想练习，以帮助专注于当下，控制不必要的、分散注意力的想法。因为冥想对于巅峰表现至关重要，法特米、沃德和兰格（2016 年）建议，采用兰格式正念是一种提升巅峰表现的好选择。杰克逊和奇克森特米哈伊建议运动员设置有利于心流产生的环境，练习对干扰的认知控制，并为比赛做好准备。
Comments on Flow, Mindfulness, Savoring, and Peak Performance 对心流、正念、品味和巅峰表现的评论
In this chapter, we have examined several major concepts concerned with leisure, flow, mindfulness, and savoring. The range of experience covered by these perspectives includes simple efforts to just pay attention to the 在本章中，我们探讨了与休闲、心流、正念和品味相关的几个主要概念。这些视角所涵盖的经验范围包括仅仅是努力去关注当下的简单尝试。
details of one’s life, relaxed and focused contemplation, an intense involvement of enjoyable activities in which we forget about time, and even altered states of consciousness. Is there anything that can be condensed from these differing perspectives? What, if anything, can be said about the nature of contemplation and enjoyment? 生活的细节，放松而专注的沉思，全身心投入令人愉悦的活动以至于忘记时间，甚至意识状态的改变。从这些不同的视角中能否提炼出什么共同点？关于沉思和享受的本质，又能说些什么呢？
To answer these questions, it is necessary to note the unique perspective on well-being presented in this chapter. The literature on leisure, flow, peak performance, and mindfulness share a common assumption about happiness and satisfaction. In one way or another, all these perspectives assume that a significant amount of well-being is found through active participation in the immediate, ongoing experiences of our lives. Likewise, they all suggest that a deep appreciation of our moment-by-moment experiences can be satisfying and even fulfilling. 要回答这些问题，有必要注意本章提出的关于幸福感的独特视角。关于休闲、心流、巅峰表现和正念的文献都有一个关于幸福和满足的共同假设。从某种意义上说，所有这些视角都假设，通过积极参与我们生活中即时、持续的经历，可以找到大量的幸福感。同样，它们都表明，对我们每时每刻经历的深刻欣赏可以是令人满足的，甚至是充实的。
It is worth observing the contrast with some other perspectives on wellbeing. For instance, models based on the goal-achievement gap postulate that people are oriented toward goals, and our well-being depends in large measure on where we currently stand in relation to the completion of those goals. Cognitive models of well-being focus on the content of consciousness. These examine whether our thoughts are positive and whether our interpretations of life help sustain optimism and meaning. Cognitive models focus on altering thoughts and interpretations, on changing the contents of our self-talk or inner chatter. In contrast, the perspectives featured in this chapter all focus on an appreciation of our current experience, rather than evaluating and altering it. One might reasonably ask therefore what factors facilitate an appreciation of the moment. 值得观察的是，这与一些其他关于幸福感的观点形成了对比。例如，基于目标实现差距的模型假设人们以目标为导向，我们的幸福感在很大程度上取决于我们目前相对于这些目标完成情况的位置。幸福感的认知模型关注意识的内容。这些模型考察我们的思想是否积极，以及我们对生活的解释是否有助于维持乐观和意义。认知模型专注于改变思想和解释，改变我们的自我对话或内心独白的内容。相比之下，本章所介绍的观点都集中在对我们当前体验的欣赏上，而不是评估和改变它。因此，人们可能会合理地询问，哪些因素有助于对当下的欣赏。
Among these factors is a decrease in self-focused attention and internal dialogue. Experiences similar to flow, such as relaxation, hypnosis, and meditation, all seem associated with a decrease in the internal chatter and self-talk of our lives. Descriptions of how to induce flow in activities, such as tennis (Galway, 1974) and Zen archery (Herrigel, 1971), often explicitly include instruction on how to get a sense of self-consciousness “out of the way” and to let the body perform without interference from self-evaluation and self-monitoring. Interestingly, neuroticism and depression are associated with increased rumination, which is partially an obsessive preoccupation with one’s thoughts, emotions, or memories. In addition, time is often distorted during flow or peak performance, and the experience of time appears to be related to how we experience the self (Fenchel, 1985; 在这些因素中，包括自我关注和内心对话的减少。类似于心流状态的体验，如放松、催眠和冥想，似乎都与生活中内心杂念和自我对话的减少有关。关于如何在活动中引发心流的描述，例如网球（Galway，1974）和禅宗射箭（Herrigel，1971），通常明确包含如何让自我意识“让开”，让身体在没有自我评估和自我监控的干扰下进行表演的指导。有趣的是，神经质和抑郁与增加的反刍思维有关，这部分的反刍思维是对自己思想、情感或记忆的强迫性关注。此外，在心流或巅峰表现期间，时间常常被扭曲，时间体验似乎与我们如何体验自我有关（Fenchel，1985；
Zimbardo & Boyd, 2009).
It appears that additional research must be conducted to identify more precisely the differences among various states of optimal experiencing. In Csikszentmihalyi’s model of flow, a balancing of skills with challenges partially defines flow. However, as mentioned, many activities that induce flow such as reading for pleasure, participating in religious rituals, or spending time with close family members are enjoyable because they demand few skills and present few challenges. Rather, it seems that the ability to switch self-focused attention to activities or experiences of the moment is the core element found in leisure, flow, mindfulness, savoring, and peak performance. The key factor seems to be absorption. Although this factor may have many qualities of a personality trait, research on mindfulness has demonstrated that it can be taught and people can increase their ability to become wrapped up in their world. The material in this chapter suggests that temporarily forgetting awareness of self and appreciating the moment can lead to greater well-being. 看来必须进行更多研究，以更精确地识别各种最佳体验状态之间的差异。在契克森米哈赖的“心流”模型中，技能与挑战的平衡部分定义了心流。然而，如前所述，许多引发心流的活动，如阅读消遣、参与宗教仪式或与亲密家人共度时光，之所以令人愉悦，是因为它们对技能要求不高，挑战也较少。相反，似乎将自我关注的注意力转向当下活动或体验的能力，是休闲、心流、正念、品味和巅峰表现中的核心要素。关键因素似乎是沉浸。尽管这一因素可能具有许多人格特质的特征，但关于正念的研究表明，它可以被教授，人们可以增强自己沉浸于世界的能力。本章内容表明，暂时忘记自我意识并欣赏当下，可以带来更大的幸福感。
Summary 摘要
In this chapter, we examined topics associated with leisure, flow, mindfulness, savoring, and peak performance. Satisfaction with life seems to be associated with having adequate leisure time to explore intrinsically satisfying pastimes. The huge variety of leisure activities that exist highlights the human need to find activities that are personally meaningful and freely chosen. At times, activities can become opportunities for optimal experiences. Many of these states have been described as flow. The intensity of flow experiences can range from mild and pleasurable experiences of being focused and involved to intense experiences in which our sense of time, control, and self are all significantly altered. In sports, these intense experiences of flow are called being in the zone. 在本章中，我们探讨了与休闲、心流、正念、品味和巅峰表现相关的话题。生活满意度似乎与拥有足够的休闲时间来探索内在满足的消遣活动有关。存在的众多休闲活动突显了人类寻找个人有意义且自由选择的活动需求。有时，活动可以成为最佳体验的机会。许多这样的状态被描述为心流。心流体验的强度可以从轻度愉悦的专注和投入体验到强烈的体验，在这种体验中，我们对时间、控制和自我的感知都发生了显著变化。在体育中，这些强烈的心流体验被称为进入“ZONE”。
We also discussed the concepts of mindfulness and savoring. These refer to moments when people focus, concentrate, and pay attention to the experiences of the moment. The state of being more mindful can enable us to break old, habitual patterns and impart the sense of being more attuned to the ongoing reality of our lives. A related concept is that of peak performance. These are moments when people perform activities at levels far above what is normally possible for them. From the intriguing perspective of sports psychology, we discussed the parameters of peak 我们还讨论了正念和品味的概念。这些指的是人们专注、集中注意力并关注当下体验的时刻。更加正念的状态可以让我们打破旧有的习惯模式，并赋予我们更加契合生活持续现实的感觉。一个相关的概念是巅峰表现。这些是人们在进行活动时，表现水平远超正常水平的时刻。从运动心理学这一引人入胜的视角出发，我们讨论了巅峰表现的参数。
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